Understanding Memory and Learning: Key Concepts
Chapter 6: Learning
Habituation and Sensitization
Habituation occurs when an individual is exposed to a stimulus for a long time, or repeatedly, and the stimulus is neither harmful nor rewarding. Sensitization occurs when exposure to a stimulus for a long time leads to an increased behavioral response, especially if the stimulus is harmful or rewarding (e.g., the smell of fire).
Classical Conditioning
- Simultaneous Conditioning: The conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) are presented at the same time.
- Backward Conditioning: The CS immediately follows the US.
- Delayed Conditioning: The CS follows the US with some time in between.
- Trace Conditioning: The CS and US are presented separately.
Acquisition -> Extinction -> Spontaneous Recovery -> Extinguished
Little Albert Experiment: A white rat was paired with a loud sound, but the effects were not long-term.
Counterconditioning: A fear-inducing object is brought closer while the individual receives something positive, like candy, to overcome a phobia.
Systematic Desensitization: CS leads to CR1 (fear), which is replaced by CR2 (relaxation).
Operant Conditioning
Thorndike’s Experiment: A cat learns to press a lever to escape a box.
Skinner Box: A rat or pigeon is placed in a box and learns to perform actions for rewards.
Premack Principle: A more valued activity can be used to reinforce the performance of a less valued activity.
Shaping: Gradually molding behavior, like making a dog surf.
Behavior Modification: Using a token economy to modify behavior.
Reinforcement Schedules
- Fixed Interval: Cramming for exams; procrastination in studying leads to fluctuating exam grades.
- Variable Interval: Pop quiz schedule; studying more regularly for unscheduled quizzes.
- Fixed Ratio: Coffee card schedule; every few purchases leads to a free drink.
- Variable Ratio: Slot machine schedule; produces robust responding with unpredictable wins.
Reinforcement and Dopamine: When reinforced, a person experiences increased dopamine in the brain region that processes reward information.
Instinctual Drift: The tendency of an animal to revert from a learned operant response to an innate instinctual response.
Learning Without Reinforcement – Tolman’s Argument: Reinforcement has more impact on performance than on the acquisition of knowledge through learning.
Observational Learning
Bobo Doll Experiment: Demonstrates observational learning.
Process: Attention -> Retention -> Reproduction -> Motivation
Mirror Neurons: Neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing that action.
Modeling: Imitating observed behaviors.
Vicarious Conditioning: Learning by observing the consequences of another person’s actions (e.g., seeing someone else being punished or rewarded).
Chapter 7: Memory
Encoding -> Storage -> Retrieval
Encoding
Attention: Focusing mental resources on information allows further processing for perception, memory, and response. Includes visual and auditory attention.
Selective Attention: Occurs because attention is a limited resource; includes the filter theory, the cocktail party effect, and change blindness (e.g., not noticing when a stranger you’re talking to changes).
Storage
Sensory Input -> Sensory Memory -> Short-Term Memory -> Long-Term Memory
Sensory Storage: Iconic memory is a visual sensory register that holds an exact copy of visual input for less than 1 second.
Short-Term Storage: Lasts about 20 seconds in a distractor task; working memory can be extended by maintenance rehearsal. Capacity is 5-9 chunks; meaningful units can increase the number of chunks.
Long-Term Storage: Nearly limitless capacity and duration. Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information over and over (auditory information). Elaborative rehearsal is based on meaning (semantic information).
Types of Long-Term Memory
Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Includes semantic memory (general knowledge) and episodic memory (personal experiences).
Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory: Includes procedural memory (motor skills and habits) and classical conditioning effects.
Primacy Effect: Better recall for items at the beginning of a list.
Recency Effect: Better recall for items at the end of a list.
Amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia: Loss of the ability to form new memories.
Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of old memories.
Infantile Amnesia: Inability to retrieve memories from ages 2-4 years.
Henry Molaison: Removal of the hippocampus led to anterograde amnesia affecting explicit memory.
Prospective Memory: Remembering to do something in the future.
Consolidation: The process by which experiences become lasting memories.
Reconsolidation: Retrieved memories can be altered by current circumstances.
Brain Regions and Memory
- Prefrontal Cortex: Working memory
- Hippocampus: Spatial memory
- Temporal Lobe: Explicit memory
- Amygdala: Implicit memory, fear learning
- Cerebellum: Implicit memory, procedural memory
Retrieval
Context-Dependent Memory: Improved recall when the context during retrieval matches the context during encoding (e.g., underwater).
State-Dependent Memory: Improved recall when internal states (e.g., mood) during retrieval match those during encoding.
Mnemonics: Memory aids like the method of loci and the peg-word system (creating mental associations between two concrete objects).
Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with the recall of old information.
Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with the recall of new information.
Absentmindedness: Lack of attention leading to memory failure.
Persistence: Unwanted retrieval of memories.
Memory Distortion
Memory Bias: Memories changing over time to align with current beliefs.
Flashbulb Memories: Vivid episodic memories of surprising or consequential events.
Misattribution: Misremembering the source or details of a memory.
Suggestibility and False Memories: Development of biased memories due to misleading information (e.g., falsely remembering”swee” when given a list of related words like”cand”).