Understanding Models and Theories in Communication and Advertising

Posted on Aug 15, 2024 in Arts and Humanities

What is a Model?

Models are constructions made by researchers to represent and simplify complex realities. They aim to explain the theoretical relationships between variables that characterize a phenomenon.

Functions of Models

  • Organizers: They order and interrelate information.
  • Heuristic: They provide explanations rather than mere descriptions of reality.
  • Predictive: They allow for the prediction of results and control of events.

Lasswell Model

  1. Who (Communicator)
  2. Says What (Message)
  3. In Which Channel (Medium)
  4. To Whom (Receiver)
  5. With What Effect (Effect)
  6. What are the consequences?
  7. Why (Purpose)
  8. Under what conditions and responsibilities?
  9. What aids are used?
  10. What social circumstances are involved?

Evolution of Studies on Media Effects

1. Stage of Powerful Media (1920-1945)

  • Influence from behaviorism and functionalism: stimulus-response
  • Domination of the behavioral paradigm of mass media
  • Evolution towards a consumption economy
  • Theories: Magic Bullet Theory, Hypodermic Needle Theory

2. Stage of Limited Effects (1945-1970)

  • Key figures: Hovland, Lewin
  • Theories: Selective Perception, Social Attitudes and Opinions, Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)
  • Emphasis on the role of mediating factors (e.g., group membership) in message processing
  • Recognition that media are not the sole cause of effects

3. The Return to Stronger Effects (1970-Present)

  • Rise of electronic media and the consolidation of television
  • Media become an integral part of social reality
  • Focus on the complexity of media effects, considering social and cultural factors
  • Theories: Gatekeeper Theory, Agenda-Setting Theory

Theories of Media Effects

Hypodermic Needle Theory (Magic Bullet Theory)

  • Assumes a uniform transmission chain from sender to receiver
  • Posits that media messages have direct, powerful, and uniform effects on audiences
  • Views audiences as passive and easily influenced

Cultivation Theory (Gerbner, 1973)

  • Argues that long-term exposure to media, particularly television, shapes an individual’s perception of reality
  • Suggests that media cultivate a shared worldview that may not reflect actual reality

Spiral of Silence Theory (Noelle-Neumann, 1974)

  • Proposes that individuals are less likely to express their opinions if they perceive themselves to be in the minority
  • Suggests that media play a role in shaping perceptions of public opinion, leading to the silencing of dissenting voices

Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs and Shaw, 1972)

  • Posits that media do not tell people what to think, but rather what to think about
  • Suggests that media coverage influences the salience of issues in the public agenda

Persuasion

Persuasion is a form of communication aimed at influencing an individual’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors. It involves using discourse to appeal to reason and emotion.

Phases of Persuasion

  1. Exhibition (Presenting the message)
  2. Satisfaction (Addressing needs and desires)
  3. Conviction (Appealing to reason and/or emotion)
  4. Display (Encouraging action or behavior change)
  5. Enjoyment (Providing a sense of reward or satisfaction)
  6. First stir, then convince, then persuade (Gradual process of influence)

Marketing

Marketing encompasses a set of techniques used to create, distribute, and sell products or services. It aims to satisfy consumer needs while generating profit for the company.

Propaganda

Propaganda involves the systematic dissemination of information, often biased or misleading, to promote a particular ideology or agenda.

Features of Propaganda

  1. Use of persuasive communication techniques
  2. Service to an ideological cause
  3. Reliance on both personal and impersonal communication channels
  4. Aim of perpetuating or changing social structures
  5. Emphasis on achieving congruence between the message and the individual’s beliefs

Purposes of Advertising

  • Report
  • Influence
  • Achieve behavior change
  • Inform
  • Generate sales
  • Promote corporate image
  • Analyze market effects

The Creative Aspect of Advertising

Advertising involves imbuing products with meaning and value through creative communication. It transforms ordinary merchandise into objects of desire and aspiration.

Creativity in Advertising

Creativity is essential in advertising for problem-solving, expressing ideas, and developing innovative approaches. It involves thinking outside the box and finding new ways to engage audiences.

Elements for Crafting Advertising Messages

Briefing Document

A briefing document provides the advertising agency with essential information about the company, product, market, competition, target audience, objectives, budget, and deadlines.

Positioning

Positioning refers to how a product is perceived in the market relative to its competitors. It involves considering physical, psychological, and social elements.

Physical Elements

  • Appearance
  • Durability
  • Quality

Psychological Elements

  • Satisfaction
  • Self-realization
  • Illusion

Social Elements

  • Status
  • Image
  • Social recognition

Format

Format refers to the size and specifications of an advertisement, depending on the chosen medium (e.g., television, print, billboards).

Types of Television Advertising

  • Spot (20, 30, or 45 seconds)
  • Publicity reports (1-3 minutes)
  • Sponsorship (beginning, end, or presented by a specific person)
  • TV Ad Promotions (integrated into the program or as a competition)
  • Product Placement and Bartering

Benefits of Television Advertising

  • Speed
  • Flexibility (geographical and temporal)
  • High-quality message delivery

Disadvantages of Television Advertising

  • Lack of specialization
  • Saturation
  • Concerns about advertising efficacy
  • High cost