Understanding Moral Action, Values, and Ethical Theories
Moral Action
Moral action is defined by these key points:
- It is guided by a code or set of moral rules and values, which determine what is considered morally good or bad.
- It should not be imposed by society; individuals must be free to choose their moral actions.
- Moral responsibility arises from acting freely.
- Knowledge of one’s actions is necessary to assert that they are acting freely.
- Responsibility extends not only to the consequences of our actions on ourselves but also to their impact on others.
Moral Values
Moral values are human qualities or ideals that we appreciate intrinsically and aspire to be universal. Every value has an opposing countervalue or negative value. For example, goodness is opposed by evil, and freedom by slavery.
We consider something a moral value when:
- It should be appreciated and respected necessarily.
- It is universal, applying to all individuals without exception.
- It is valued for its own sake, not for selfish benefits or external interests.
Moral Rules
Moral rules are behavioral patterns, habits, or norms that regulate social coexistence. They are often expressed as orders or imperatives that compel certain behaviors and originate from moral values.
Moral rules guide our actions and behavior for two main reasons:
- Moral Heteronomy: We are guided by an external order imposed by an authority (e.g., parents, political or religious figures) or by fear of punishment.
- Moral Autonomy: We act based on our own conviction of what is right, rationally and voluntarily assuming the values and rules of society.
Ethical Theories
Socrates’ Moral Intellectualism
Socrates believed that knowledge of good and right leads to good and right actions. He argued that no one does wrong willingly; wrong actions stem from ignorance of what is good. Evil, therefore, is a product of ignorance.
Sophists’ Moral Relativism
This doctrine suggests that no action is inherently good or bad. Judgments depend on individual perspectives, interests, and projects. What is considered morally good is subjective and may change over time. No behavior is inherently censurable, regardless of personal considerations.
Aristotle’s Eudaemonism
Aristotle posited that all human actions aim to achieve a purpose, with happiness (eudaimonia) as the ultimate goal. Happiness is sufficient in itself and is achieved through a life of reason. Wisdom is the virtue that provides true happiness. Managing desires and passions to achieve a “golden mean” between excess and defect is crucial for a virtuous life.
Epicurus’ Hedonism
Epicurus believed that the purpose of life is to seek pleasure and avoid pain. Pleasure is defined as the absence of physical pain and mental confusion. He proposed an “arithmetic of pleasures” to calculate the advantages and disadvantages of different pleasures. Desires are classified into natural and necessary, natural and unnecessary, and unnatural and unnecessary.
Jeremy Bentham’s Utilitarianism
Bentham argued that good is what provides the most pleasure to the most people. Pleasure and pain guide our behavior. The “principle of utility” aims to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. This principle involves calculating the amount of pleasure and pain each action provides. An action is good when it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number. However, this raises questions about how to objectively measure pleasure and the quality of different types of pleasures.