Understanding Natural and Social Sciences: Truth, History, and Methods
Natural Science: The Scientific Method
Sciences that study physical reality are very varied. Some merely observe, describe, and classify things. Their criterion of truth is the precision of fit to the object studied. Others seek to know the laws governing phenomena and the internal structure of things. They follow the hypothetical-deductive method, which involves:
- Identification of a problem.
- Discovery/invention of a hypothesis.
- Formulation of a hypothesis.
- Testing of the hypothesis.
When the evidence sufficiently corroborates the hypothesis, it becomes a law or theory. In life, we all follow a similar process. In scientific practice, formulating a hypothesis and testing it is a normal procedure.
Criteria of Truth
Science is not infallible. It elaborates hypotheses, not explanations, which are tested. In the process of contrasting and subjecting them to the criteria of truth, their strength will be corroborated. The more criteria met, the safer it will be. The main criteria are:
1. Consistency
A theory must have internal and external consistency.
2. Method and Control
The evidence is strictly controlled. Strong perceptual evidence is more rigorous and methodical than uncontrolled observation. Observation without a method is weak.
3. Experimentation
A theory has more strength as it has been proven through repeated and varied experiences that can be replicated.
4. Falsifiability
The stronger the evidence produced by an experience that denies a hypothesis, the better. Only when it exceeds the tests of falsifiability does it acquire true strength.
5. Prediction
A theory gains strength when it predicts phenomena that are corroborated, or when any of the practical consequences resulting from it succeed.
Meeting these criteria does not absolutely guarantee the truth of a theory, but the strength of the evidence obtained can be considered justified in its acceptance. Consensus is not a criterion of truth.
History: The History and Its Problems
As an example of social sciences, i.e., sciences that have humans as protagonists, we focus on history. History raises not only philosophical questions but also political and ethical ones. Natural sciences study systems governed by strict laws. Humans have a component of freedom that makes many behaviors unpredictable. Moreover, in the case of historical events, we cannot repeat them to check causes.
It is common to talk about “strong” or “hard” sciences and “weak” or “soft” sciences; however, the social sciences are critically important for humans. Studying history – how facts “solve” events – is one of the tasks of historical science.
Objectives of History
History has the following objectives regarding past events:
1. Describing
Objective and impartially.
2. Understanding
Inclusion within a model of motivations, desires, and ends.
3. Submitting Interpretation Hypotheses
To see if there are laws governing historical events. The truth is that history is a current, cutting-edge field, and all have a certain degree of arbitrariness that historians try to mitigate. Historical facts may be interpreted differently and can be used with special interests, which is why science must submit them to rigorous scientific critique to test the strength of the evidence. History should also avoid ethnocentrism, i.e., a perspective centered on one’s own culture. Kant called for “a universal story of cosmopolitan character,” i.e., one that recognizes the importance of what happens in all countries of the world.
Historical Method
History is based on critical study. It is aided by many complementary sciences. This allows statements about facts to be firm when there is evidence. The method used by the historian is called hermeneutics, which is the science of interpretation.