Understanding Political Power and the State
1 What is Politics?
Politics is the process by which groups, organizations, and societies make collective decisions. There are several ways to make decisions in a group:
- Group decision after deliberation (reasoned argument) by all members.
- Delegation of the decision to one person.
- Imposition of a decision by one person through threats or force.
1.1 Cooperation and Conflict
Aristotle viewed politics as cooperation, while Machiavelli identified politics with conflict.
Politics as Cooperation
According to Aristotle:
- Humans are social beings by nature and cannot live in isolation. Therefore, they naturally live in groups and societies.
- Human rational nature allows for communication, organization, and the establishment of right and wrong, transcending individual interests.
- Living in society requires dialogue to determine the common good. Politics, therefore, utilizes dialogue to achieve the greatest benefit for everyone.
Politics as Conflict
In The Prince, Machiavelli advises on acquiring and maintaining power. He viewed politics as:
- Separate from morality. The pursuit of political power takes precedence over ethical or moral principles. The end justifies the means.
- Requiring the ruler to maintain power through calculation and controlled ambition, as excessive ambition can lead to power loss.
2 Political Power
Power is the ability to impose one’s will on others. According to Weber, there are three forms of power: economic, ideological, and political.
- Economic power is the ability to grant or withhold wealth.
- Ideological power is the ability to grant or withhold prestige.
- Political power is characterized by:
- A relationship between those who give orders and those who obey. The person in authority can demand obedience through violence or threats. This is incompatible with other forms of power like dialogue and communication.
- Power exercised through violence, imposing its will legitimately, meaning with the agreement and recognition of the majority of the population.
Currently, violence is considered legitimate (legal) when based on democratically adopted laws.
3 The State
The state comprises the governing bodies within a sovereign country. Its characteristics include:
- Delimited territorial boundaries, subjecting everyone within those borders to its laws.
- An administrative and legal organization providing essential services.
- A monopoly on violence. Weber argued that the state is the only entity that can legitimately use violence to enforce laws.
- Sovereignty, meaning no higher power can impose its will upon it.
3.1 Classification of States
A. By Type of Government and Participation in Power
- Autocracy: Power held by one person.
- Dictatorships: A single person holds all political power without legal limitations.
- Monarchies: A single person governs according to established laws.
- Oligarchies and Aristocracies: A small group, presenting themselves as the best, holds power.
- Democracies: All citizens participate in politics.
B. By Respect for Laws and Rule of Law
- States without respect for law: Authoritarian or despotic states, where authority rests with a despot, dictator, or absolute monarch.
- Absolutist states: Typically monarchies with near-unlimited power.
- Totalitarian states: Control all aspects of society, including individual privacy.
- States with respect for law: Liberal states where the state protects citizens’ rights.
4 Authority and Legitimacy
Authority refers to the person or group exercising institutionalized power. When institutionalized, the commands and obedience are largely unquestioned by society. There is a general agreement to obey authority and punish disobedience. This agreement signifies that power has been legitimized.
4.1 Authority and Obedience
Obedience to authority stems from two reasons:
- Social beliefs that institutionalize power, creating mutual recognition between those who command and those who obey. The person in authority does not need to justify their power.
- Fear of penalties for disobedience. Penalties vary depending on the offense.
The concept of authority is relative; an individual may command in some situations and obey in others. Democratic societies have mechanisms to prevent abuse of power and to punish offenders while compensating victims.
4.2 Legitimacy
Power is institutionalized when considered legitimate. Three ways to legitimize political power are:
- Traditional: Power is held by a group, clan, or family based on historical precedent.
- Charismatic: Power and legitimacy are based on the ability to attract and mobilize citizens. Power is not inherited.
- Legal: Authority rests in law derived from popular will, not in a specific person. The government employs officials and procedures, collectively known as the bureaucracy, to enforce the law.
5 The Basis of the State: The Social Contract
17th and 18th-century philosophers questioned the reasons for obeying authority, the existence of the state, and the possibility of human life without a state. The answer is the social contract, where people choose to transfer power to a legitimate authority. Contract theorists like Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau agree that state power results from a pact among citizens. They distinguish between two states:
- State of Nature: A hypothetical description of human life without a state.
- Civil State: When the state of nature becomes unsustainable, people organize based on a pact.
5.1 Thomas Hobbes
- State of Nature: “Man is wolf to man.” Humans are free but in a state of war, threatening each other’s security.
- State: Absolute. It imposes security and peace.
- Social Contract: Individuals surrender their freedom and power to a sovereign.
5.2 John Locke
Locke had a more optimistic view of human nature than Hobbes.
- State of Nature: Humans have natural rights, but these may not be respected.
- State: Liberal democratic. Power is fragmented, and legitimacy rests on protecting citizens’ rights.
- Social Contract: Individuals consensually elect a ruler to protect their basic rights, granting power conditional on proper execution of duties.
5.3 Jean-Jacques Rousseau
- State of Nature: Humans are inherently good, living communally and sharing everything. Civilization and private property created inequality.
- State: Social democratic. Power derives from the general will, aiming to fulfill citizens’ needs.
- Social Contract: The state is necessary to restore equality and freedom.