Understanding Politics: Attitudes, Systems, and Theories
We now focus on human beings as social animals, living in a society governed by institutions that serve it. These institutions determine and constitute what is called the state.
Attitudes Toward Politics
- The Political: Active posture involving individual engagement.
- The Apolitical: Disengagement from politics; some authors dispute this term.
- The Antipolitical: Rejection of organized politics, which can be peaceful or not.
Political Systems
- Monarchy: The king’s legitimacy is based on divinity or lineage.
- Aristocracy: Rule by the “best,” based on lineage or wisdom.
- Oligarchy: Rule by a few, typically those with wealth and power.
- Tyranny: Administration by one or more individuals based on force, often leading to dictatorship.
- Democracy: Political action exerted through reason.
Political Theories
Thomas Hobbes: The Theory of Absolute Power
Hobbes considers human nature as selfish, seeking only pleasure. “Man is a wolf to man.”
Need and Purpose of the Covenant
Hobbes argues that all humans are equal in body and mind, and no one can claim privilege. Human nature leads to three causes of discord:
- Competition: To gain a net benefit.
- Mistrust: To provide security.
- Glory: To win reputation.
Without laws, we are in a “war of all against all.” The transition to a civil state aims to prevent this and ensure security and order.
Contract Characteristics
Only a higher force can establish a bond or contract between humans. This is a contract of submission to the absolute power of the sovereign (Leviathan).
Characteristics of Established Power
The sovereign is the result of the pact, making the law but being above it, and cannot be judged.
Rousseau: The Theory of Representative Sovereignty
Rousseau, an enlightened philosopher, has two motivations in his political theory:
- To find a way to reform society.
- To search for how individuals can interact with the community without losing their freedom.
The Human Being in a State of Nature
Prior to life in society, humans were good, happy, independent, and free.
Life in a corrupt society makes humans bad, driven by vanity and selfishness. The goal is not to return to that state but to reform society on new foundations. The social contract must be a contract of freedom.
The Form of Contract as Rousseau Sees It
Finding a way to defend and protect each association’s person and property, by virtue of which each, joining all, obeys only himself and remains as free as before. This transitions from natural liberty to civil and political freedom, a waiver for the whole community (popular sovereignty).
Characteristics of Power
Sovereignty resides in the general will and is exercised through Parliament, whose representatives are elected by universal suffrage. The smooth functioning of this government relies on the division of powers.