Understanding Psychopathy, White-Collar Crime, and Drift Theory: A Sociological Perspective
Psychopathy: A Concept of Antisocial Behavior
The term “psychopathy” refers to individuals who lack socialization and exhibit behaviors that consistently clash with societal norms. They are often characterized by a lack of loyalty, extreme selfishness, insensitivity, irresponsibility, and a low frustration tolerance.
Two key features define the psychopathic personality: an inability to experience emotional responses and an irresistible tendency to act impulsively. These traits often lead to secondary antisocial behaviors such as aggression, lack of motivation, and a disregard for societal rules.
Untreated psychopathy can be considered a mental illness, as individuals may lose touch with reality while maintaining their mental faculties. Depending on the country, they may face criminal charges.
The PCL-R: Assessing Psychopathy
The Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), developed by Robert Hare, is the most widely used tool for assessing psychopathy worldwide. This 20-item scale is divided into two factors:
Factor 1: Personality
- Superficial charm and glibness
- Grandiose sense of self-worth
- Self-centeredness
- Pathological lying
- Manipulation
- Lack of remorse or guilt
- Superficial affection
- Lack of empathy
- Failure to accept responsibility for actions
Factor 2: Social Deviance
- Need for stimulation
- Parasitic lifestyle
- Poor behavioral control
- Early behavioral problems
- Lack of realistic long-term goals
- Impulsivity
- Irresponsibility
- Juvenile delinquency
- Revocation of conditional release
- Criminal versatility
- Promiscuous sexual behavior
- Many short-term marital relationships
Each item on the PCL-R is assigned a score, and a total score of 30 or higher indicates psychopathy. Scores between 20 and 29 suggest moderate psychopathic traits, while scores below 20 indicate no psychopathy.
The Chicago School: Urban Environments and Crime
The Chicago School, a group of sociologists from the University of Chicago, focused on the relationship between urban environments and crime. They argued that the physical and social characteristics of certain urban areas, particularly in modern industrial cities, contribute to crime and explain its geographical distribution.
Key Concepts of the Chicago School
- **Purpose:** To understand the impact of urban growth, industrial expansion, and the rise of railroads on crime.
- **Method:** The Chicago School employed empirical field research, statistics, and advanced technological methods.
- **Conclusions:** The school concluded that individuals who were not criminals in their home countries might become offenders after migrating to America. This change in environment could lead to a decrease in inhibitions and an increase in criminal activity.
The Chicago School also emphasized the importance of social disorganization, arguing that crime occurs in areas where social institutions are weak and unable to control residents’ behavior.
White-Collar Crime: Offenses of the Elite
Edwin Sutherland, a prominent sociologist, challenged the traditional view that poverty and marginalization are the primary causes of crime. He argued that these explanations are inadequate and that statistical data often fail to account for high-status offenders who are more likely to evade the law.
Sutherland’s work on white-collar crime demonstrated that offenses committed by individuals in high socioeconomic classes, with economic and political power, are often treated differently than crimes committed by lower-class individuals. These offenders often benefit from a separate consideration that avoids criminal liability.
Characteristics of White-Collar Crime
- Offenses committed by individuals in positions of power and authority.
- Often involve financial fraud, embezzlement, or other forms of economic exploitation.
- May not be perceived as criminal by society, as they are often seen as violations of trust rather than criminal acts.
- Can have a significant impact on society, even if they do not directly harm individuals.
Drift Theory: Neutralizing Moral Boundaries
David Matza, a sociologist, accepted that criminal behavior is learned but argued that most delinquents still adhere to societal values. He proposed that individuals drift in and out of delinquency, occasionally committing offenses while remaining largely conventional citizens.
Matza suggested that individuals must learn to neutralize the force of the regulatory system to engage in criminal behavior. This neutralization occurs through a process of accommodation, which involves several elements:
Elements of Accommodation
- **Traditions Buried:** These are values that are part of mainstream culture but are not openly discussed.
- **Neutralization Techniques:** These techniques use the same values that define societal norms, sometimes unconsciously, to justify criminal behavior.
- **Circumstances Accepted:** These are situations where the criminal code is accepted but exceptions are made for vindication.
Neutralization Techniques
- **Disclaimers:** Denying that the conduct is unlawful or denying or disqualifying the victim.
- **Preparation:** Justifying the act by claiming it is technically or morally acceptable.
- **Despair:** Engaging in the act to reaffirm self-esteem or to cope with a sense of powerlessness.
Sociological Theories of Women Offenders
Otto Pollak, in his 1950 book “The Criminality of Women,” offered a sociological explanation for female crime. He argued that women’s crimes are often linked to their social roles, which allow them to easily disguise their offenses. He also suggested that men’s protection of women leads to underreporting of female crime, while authorities are more sympathetic to women when enforcing the law.
Pollak’s theory, known as the “role theory,” is purely sociological. It distinguishes between theories of role reversal and convergence. Role reversal theories suggest that women offenders are those who deviate from their traditional roles, while convergence theories argue that societal changes have blurred gender roles, leading to a convergence in criminal behavior between men and women.
The Positivist School: Biological and Social Factors in Crime
The positivist school of criminology, founded by Cesare Lombroso, focused on biological and social factors that contribute to criminal behavior. Lombroso’s most famous work, “The Criminal Man,” presented his theory of the atavistic born criminal, who is believed to be the result of incomplete evolutionary development.
Lombroso identified specific anatomical features that he believed characterized atavistic born criminals. He later expanded his theory to include other types of offenders, such as the morally insane offender, the epileptic offender, and the occasional offender.
Lombroso believed that some offenders could be rehabilitated through a healthy environment, proper training, and the development of moral and human feelings. He also argued that punishment should serve two purposes: to protect society and to reform or improve the offender.
Characteristics of Psychopathy: Insights from Cleckley and Hare
Hervey Cleckley and Robert Hare have made significant contributions to our understanding of psychopathy. They identified several key characteristics, including:
- Absence of nervousness
- External charm and intelligence
- Egocentricity and incapacity to love
- Poverty of basic emotional reactions
- Lack of feelings of guilt and remorse
- Unworthy trust
- Lying and insincerity
- Inability to follow a life plan
- Impersonal relationships
- Good sexual behavior and alcohol abuse
These characteristics highlight the complex nature of psychopathy and its impact on individuals and society.