Understanding Research Designs and Literature Reviews
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
Research Designs: Unpacking the Toolbox
In the world of psychology research, asking the right questions is just the beginning. To effectively answer those questions, researchers need to choose the most appropriate design for their study. Just like a toolbox has different tools for different jobs, research has various designs suited to specific purposes. This guide will delve into four key dimensions that categorize research designs:
Purpose:
What is the research aiming to achieve? Is it to explore a new topic, describe a phenomenon, or explain why and how something happens?Uses:
How will the findings be applied? Will they contribute to our fundamental understanding or be used to solve practical problems?Time Frame:
Over what period is data collected? Does the research capture change over time, offer a snapshot at a specific point, or utilize a combination of both?Data Collection Techniques:
How is the information gathered? Does the research rely on numbers and statistics, delve into experiences and meanings, or combine both quantitative and qualitative approaches?
These dimensions are interconnected. The purpose of a study often influences the chosen data collection techniques, and the intended uses of the research might be shaped by the time frame employed. By understanding these classifications, you’ll gain a deeper appreciation for the diverse approaches to research and become a more critical consumer of research findings.
Classifying Research Based on Purpose:
Exploratory, Descriptive, and Explanatory Research
Research in psychology, like any other field, can be classified based on its primary objective. Here’s a breakdown of three common classifications based on purpose, along with visuals and real-world applications to enhance understanding for students.
Exploratory Research:
- Goal: Gain initial insights into a new topic, identify research questions, and develop hypotheses for future studies.
- Focus: Gathering broad information about a phenomenon, often using open-ended methods like interviews, focus groups, or pilot studies.
Imagine: A researcher is interested in understanding the factors that contribute to student procrastination. They might conduct interviews with students to explore their experiences and reasons for delaying tasks.
- Outcomes: Provides a starting point for further research, helps refine research questions, and identifies potential variables to investigate.
- Real-World Application: Exploring the lived experiences of individuals with a new mental health condition to identify potential areas for further research and treatment development.
Visual Aid:
Broadening Knowledge
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Exploratory Research ——–> Leads to:
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New Research Questions & Hypotheses
Descriptive Research:
- Goal: Describe the characteristics of a population or phenomenon in detail.
- Focus: Collecting quantitative or qualitative data to measure and describe the who, what, when, and where of a phenomenon.
Imagine: A researcher wants to describe the prevalence of anxiety symptoms among college students. They might administer a standardized anxiety scale to a large sample of students.
- Outcomes: Provides a detailed picture of a population or phenomenon at a specific point in time.
- Real-World Application: Conducting a national survey to measure public attitudes towards a new social policy.
Visual Aid:
Describe & Measure
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Descriptive Research ———> Detailed Picture of a Population or Phenomenon
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Explanatory Research:
- Goal: Explain the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of a phenomenon. Explanatory research aims to identify causal relationships between variables.
- Focus: Testing hypotheses about the relationships between variables. Often uses experimental designs, where one variable is manipulated to observe its effect on another variable.
Imagine: A researcher wants to understand the impact of mindfulness meditation on stress levels. They might conduct an experiment where one group of participants practices mindfulness meditation for a period of time, while another group does not. They would then compare stress levels between the two groups.
- Outcomes: Provides insights into the causal relationships between variables and helps to explain how and why a phenomenon occurs.
- Real-World Application: Testing the effectiveness of a new cognitive-behavioral therapy program for depression by comparing symptom reduction in a treatment group versus a control group.
Visual Aid:
Identify Causes
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Explanatory Research ———> Test Hypotheses & Relationships between Variables
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Choosing the Right Design:
The choice of research design depends on the stage of your research and the research question you are trying to answer.
- Exploratory research is often used as a starting point, especially when studying a new topic.
- Descriptive research is useful for obtaining a detailed picture of a population or phenomenon.
- Explanatory research is used to test hypotheses and understand causal relationships.
Remember, these research designs are not mutually exclusive. Research projects can sometimes incorporate elements of multiple types of research designs.
Research Based on Uses:
Basic vs. Applied Research
Research can be broadly categorized based on its primary objective. Here’s a breakdown of two major categories: Basic research and applied research:
Basic Research (Fundamental Research):
- Goal: Expands knowledge and understanding of fundamental principles without a specific practical application in mind.
- Focus: Theoretical development, exploration of new ideas, and discovery of new knowledge.
- Outcomes: New theories, models, or frameworks that contribute to a broader understanding of a field.
Examples:
– Studying the genetic basis of a disease to understand its mechanisms, not necessarily to develop a cure immediately.
– Investigating the formation of galaxies in the universe without an immediate practical application.
– Examining the psychological factors influencing human memory consolidation, even if the findings aren’t directly applicable to improving memory training programs yet.
Applied Research:
- Goal: Develops practical solutions to real-world problems by applying existing knowledge from basic research or other applied research endeavors.
- Focus: Developing new technologies, products, interventions, or processes that address specific problems.
- Outcomes: New drugs, vaccines, educational programs, marketing strategies, or social policies that can be implemented to solve practical issues.
Examples:
– Designing a new drug based on the understanding of a disease’s genetic mechanisms (derived from basic research).
– Developing new materials with improved heat resistance for applications in aerospace engineering.
– Evaluating the effectiveness of different teaching methods to improve student learning outcomes.
Key Differences:
Here’s a table summarizing the key differences between basic and applied research:
Feature Basic Research Applied Research
Goal Expand knowledge Solve practical problems
Focus Theoretical development Practical applications
Outcomes New theories, models New technologies, interventions
Timescale Usually longer-term Can be shorter-term
Funding Sources Government grants, universities Public and private funding
The Relationship Between Basic and Applied Research:
These two research types are not mutually exclusive. Basic research often lays the foundation for future applied research. For example, the discovery of electricity through basic research paved the way for countless inventions that use electricity. Conversely, applied research can sometimes lead to new fundamental discoveries that contribute to basic knowledge.
Additional Points:
– Mixed Methods Research: Sometimes, a single research project might incorporate elements of both basic and applied research. This is known as mixed methods research.
– Importance of Both Types: Both basic and applied research are crucial for scientific advancement and societal progress. Basic research fuels innovation, while applied research translates it into practical solutions.
Classifying Research Based on Time Frame:
Longitudinal, Cross-Sectional, and Cross-Sequential Designs
In psychology research, the time frame over which data is collected is a critical factor in understanding the research design. Here’s a breakdown of three common classifications based on time, along with visuals and real-world applications to enhance understanding:
Longitudinal Research:
- Goal: Tracks changes and development over an extended period.
- Focus: Repeatedly measuring the same variables in the same group of participants over time.
Imagine: Following a group of children from infancy to adulthood, like observing their social skills every few years.
- Outcomes: Provides insights into how individuals or groups change over time. Helps establish cause-and-effect relationships (with caution, as other factors might also influence change).
- Real-World Application: Studying the long-term effects of early childhood education programs on academic achievement and social skills throughout a child’s life.
An asterisk (*) represents a measurement point where data is collected from the same group of participants.
Cross-Sectional Research:
- Goal: Obtains a snapshot of a population at a specific time.
- Focus: Collecting data from different groups of participants at a single point in time. Researchers compare these groups to understand age-related differences or other variations between populations.
Imagine: Comparing memory performance in three separate groups: young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults, all tested at the same time.
- Outcomes: Provides a comparative picture of different groups at a specific time. Useful for studying age-related trends or differences between populations.
- Real-World Application: Comparing levels of stress and coping mechanisms among teenagers, young adults, and middle-aged adults to understand how stress perception and coping strategies change with age.
Age Group Young Adults Middle-Aged Adults Older Adults
Memory Test Scores * * *
An asterisk (*) represents a measurement point where data is collected from the different AGE group of participants.
Cross-Sequential Research:
- Goal: Provides a more comprehensive understanding of development by combining longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches.
- Focus: Following multiple groups of participants from different age cohorts over a period of time. Allows researchers to examine both age-related changes and individual development within each cohort.
Imagine: Studying the development of language skills in two groups of children (e.g., 5-year-olds and 10-year-olds) over a two-year period.
- Outcomes: Offers insights into both age-related trends and individual development within age groups.
- Real-World Application: Examining the effectiveness of different educational interventions for children with learning disabilities across two age groups (elementary and middle school) to see how the interventions impact both age-related development and individual progress.
Time Year 1 Year 2
Group A (5-year-olds) * *
Group B (10-year-olds) * *
Choosing the Right Design:
The choice of research design depends on the specific research question and the available resources.
- For studying change and development over time, longitudinal designs are ideal.
- For obtaining a snapshot of a population at a specific time, cross-sectional designs can be useful.
- When both age comparisons and individual development are of interest, cross-sequential designs can be a powerful tool.
Remember, each research design has its strengths and weaknesses. Carefully consider your research question and choose the design that best allows you to address it effectively.
Classifying Research Based on Data Collection Techniques:
Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods
The way researchers gather information is a crucial aspect of research design. Here’s a breakdown of three common classifications based on data collection techniques, along with visuals and real-world applications to enhance understanding for students.
Quantitative Research:
- Focus: Collects numerical data that can be counted, measured, and analyzed statistically.
- Data Collection Methods: Surveys, questionnaires, standardized tests, experiments (involving manipulating variables and measuring outcomes).
Imagine: A researcher is interested in the relationship between sleep quality and academic performance in college students. They might distribute a survey that asks students about their sleep habits and collects their GPA data.
- Outcomes: Provides data that can be generalized to a larger population through statistical analysis. Helps identify trends, correlations, and potential cause-and-effect relationships.
- Real-World Application: Evaluating the effectiveness of a new educational program by comparing standardized test scores of students in the program to those in a control group.
Visual Aid:
Numbers & Statistics
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Quantitative Research ———> Analyze Measurable Data (Surveys, Tests, Experiments)
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Generalizable Findings
Qualitative Research:
- Focus: Collecting non-numerical data, such as text, images, or audio recordings, to understand experiences, perceptions, and meanings.
- Data Collection Methods: Interviews, focus groups, observations, document analysis.
Imagine: A researcher wants to understand the experiences of individuals with social anxiety disorder. They might conduct interviews with individuals diagnosed with the disorder to explore their thoughts, feelings, and coping strategies.
- Outcomes: Provides rich, detailed insights into the lived experiences of participants. Helps understand perspectives and meanings that may not be captured through numbers.
- Real-World Application: Conducting in-depth interviews with healthcare professionals to understand their perceptions and challenges regarding a new medical treatment.
Visual Aid:
Words & Meanings
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Qualitative Research ———> Explore Experiences & Perceptions (Interviews, Observations)
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In-depth Understanding
Mixed Methods Research:
- Focus: Combines quantitative and qualitative data collection methods within a single study to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the research question.
Imagine: A researcher is studying the impact of a new after-school program on student engagement. They might collect quantitative data through surveys measuring student participation and satisfaction, and qualitative data through interviews with students and teachers to gain deeper insights into their experiences with the program.
- Outcomes: Provides a more complete picture of the phenomenon by combining the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative approaches.
- Real-World Application: Evaluating a new community intervention for substance abuse prevention by collecting survey data on drug use rates alongside focus groups with participants to understand their experiences with the program and potential barriers to success.
Visual Aid:
Numbers & Words
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Quantitative & Qualitative ——–> Mixed Methods Research
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Comprehensive Understanding
Choosing the Right Design:
The choice of data collection technique depends on the research question and the type of information you need to answer it effectively.
- Quantitative research is suitable for studying relationships between variables and making generalizations to a larger population.
- Qualitative research is valuable for understanding experiences, perceptions, and meanings.
- Mixed methods research can be powerful for gaining a more comprehensive picture of a phenomenon.
Remember, the best research design is the one that allows you to best address your specific research question.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature
The collected body of previous scholarly works related to a topic.
The major works that have been published about your narrow topic.
Review
Snapshot of the work
A Good Literature Review is:
- Focused – The topic should be narrow. You should only present ideas and only report on studies that are closely related to the topic.
- Concise – Ideas should be presented economically. Don’t take any more space than you need to present your ideas.
- Logical – The flow within and among paragraphs should be a smooth, logical progression from one idea to the next.
- Developed – Don’t leave the story half told.
- Integrative – Your paper should stress how the ideas in the studies are related. Focus on the big picture. What commonality do all the studies share? How are some studies different than others? Your paper should stress how all the studies reviewed contribute to your topic.
- Current – Your review should focus on work being done on the cutting edge of your topic.
Pitfalls
- Vagueness due to too much or inappropriate generalizations
- Limited range
- Insufficient information
- Irrelevant material
- Omission of contrasting views
- Omission of recent work
What literature you should review?
- Journals Articles
- Books
- Conference proceedings
- Government/corporate reports
- Theses and dissertations
- Newspapers
- Internet
Online sources for literature review
1. www.scirus.com
2. web of knowledge
3. SPIRES
4. NCBI PubMed
5. The library (electronic)
6. HEC Digital Library
• ELSEVIER ( www.sciencedirect.com)
• SPRINGERLINK ( http://www.springerlink.com)
• Wiley-Blackwell Journals ( http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/)
• World Bank e-library (http://elibrary.worldbank.org/)
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is when someone uses another person’s words, ideas, or work without giving proper credit. It’s like copying someone else’s homework and pretending that you did it all by yourself.
For example, let’s say you are writing an essay for school and you find a great article on the internet that has some perfect sentences you want to use. If you copy those sentences word for word and don’t give credit to the original author, that’s plagiarism. Even if you change a few words, it’s still plagiarism if you don’t give credit to the original author.
Plagiarism is considered a serious offense in academia and can lead to consequences such as failing a course, losing a job, or damaging one’s reputation. It’s always important to properly cite sources and give credit where credit is due to avoid plagiarism.
Types of Plagiarism
There are different types of plagiarism that one should be aware of. Some of the most common types include:
1. Copying word for word: This is when someone copies text verbatim from a source without giving proper credit.
Example: A student copies a paragraph from a website and pastes it into their paper without using quotation marks or acknowledging the original author.
2. Paraphrasing: This is when someone rewrites a text in their own words without giving proper credit to the original source.
Example: A student rewrites a paragraph from a book in their own words, but the structure and ideas remain the same as the original text.
3. Self-plagiarism: This is when someone submits work that they have previously submitted for another class or purpose without permission or proper citation.
Example: A student submits an essay they previously submitted for a different class without informing the teacher or acknowledging that it is a recycled work.
4. Patchwork plagiarism: This is when someone takes bits and pieces of information from multiple sources and combines them without giving proper credit.
Example: A student creates an essay by piecing together information from different sources without using quotation marks or citing the sources.
5. Accidental plagiarism: This is when someone unintentionally plagiarizes because they are not aware of proper citation rules.
Example: A student forgets to cite a source because they didn’t realize they needed to, or they misunderstand how to properly cite a source.
It is important to understand and avoid all types of plagiarism to maintain academic integrity and avoid negative consequences.
Plagiarism includes (Galvan, pg. 89):
1. Using another writer’s words without proper citation
2. Using another writer’s ideas without proper citation
3. Citing a source but reproducing the exact word without quotation marks
4. Borrowing the structure of another author’s phrases/sentences without giving the source
5. Borrowing all or part of another student’s paper
6. Using paper-writing service or having a friend write the paper