Understanding Science: Definitions, Perception, and Factors
What is Science?
We will explore different meanings of science:
Meaning: Vulgar Synonym
Science is often used as a synonym for “know-how.”
Science as Hypothetical Deductive Model
Science, according to Aristotle, involves deducing a conclusion from premises. A scientist, in this view, makes deductions from a universal premise (universal hypothesis). While this model prevailed from Aristotle’s time (3rd century) to the 15th or 16th century (Galileo), it has a critical flaw: if the premises are false, the conclusion, however well-reasoned, will also be false (e.g., black swans).
Science in the Modern Sense
Emerging in the 16th-18th centuries with figures like Galileo, modern science recognizes the flaws in Aristotle’s model. It emphasizes reducing phenomena to mathematical terms and relies on ongoing experimentation to build theorems. Mathematics, being universal, guarantees the truth of the theorem.
Human Sciences
Beginning in the 18th century, disciplines like history, economics, and political science emerged, attempting to emulate the natural sciences. However, the object of study in social sciences (human beings) is subject to variation, unlike the relatively unchanging objects of study in natural sciences (e.g., stones).
The Problem of Perception
Formulation of the Problem
What is perception? Is it subjective or objective? The problem arises because the same object can be perceived differently depending on various factors, indicating a subjective element.
Theory of Relativity
Newton (18th century) believed space and time were absolute. Einstein (19th-20th century) argued that space-time is not equal for everyone.
Conclusion
If we use a single system as a reference, everything appears objective. However, reality involves multiple references, making perception relative. There are as many viewpoints of the same thing or object as there are systems of reference.
Factors Determining Perception
Taking the human body as a reference, we can distinguish between internal and external factors that shape perceptions.
Internal Factors: Physiological Factors
These include the senses (sight, taste, smell, etc.). Our perception is influenced by our physiology, meaning what we perceive is not necessarily how things truly are. Our perception of reality is always, to some extent, filtered.
External Factors
These include ideologies, beliefs, and environmental factors determined by society. Our vision of reality is also conditioned by the ideas prevalent in a society.
Gestalt Psychology
This school of psychology posits that human beings have relatively stable patterns that determine how we organize and perceive stimuli. Despite individual differences, certain patterns recur in people’s perceptions.
Gestalt Principles: Principles of Perceptual Organization
Figure and Ground
The tendency to perceive shapes in contrast with a background. Depending on where attention is directed, the same object can be interpreted as either the figure or the background, but not simultaneously.
Proximity
Objects are grouped according to proximity. The nearest objects are perceived as part of the same group or set.
Similarity
Objects are grouped by resemblance. Similar objects are perceived as forming groups or clusters.