Understanding Science: Its Nature, Structure, and Methods
One characteristic that distinguishes humans from other living beings is an innate curiosity that leads us to wonder about the world in which we live and about our own human nature. Science seeks to understand reality, find the causes of observed phenomena, establish universally valid concepts, and demonstrate rational arguments. Science is the knowledge that provides a better understanding of the universe. It is a system of knowledge about a specific sector of reality, derived in a rational way, which has specific working methods and criteria for testing and verification.
Functions of Science
- Analyze and interpret rationally the facts or observable phenomena from different plots of reality, as science is concerned.
- Study how facts relate to each other, looking for regularities and constants that allow the formulation of laws.
- Express capabilities, i.e., explain what might happen with a particular phenomenon under certain conditions.
- Acquire knowledge to control natural phenomena to achieve benefit.
- Develop technological advances to take advantage of new scientific knowledge and improve the living standards of people.
Characteristics of Scientific Knowledge
- It’s a way of knowing rationally.
- It is a systematic and thorough knowledge; nothing is left to chance.
- Its results are demonstrable, by experience or by theoretical reasoning.
- It seeks to be objective, to eliminate interference that can influence the search for truth.
- It is intended as a universal knowledge. This implies that what is said about a particular case serves to explain all possible cases of the same type and without exception.
Types of Scientific Knowledge
Empirical Science
Empirical sciences focus on the study of observable facts and are testable by experience. There are two types:
- Natural Sciences: Their subject is the physical world (e.g., Physics, Chemistry, Biology).
- Social and Human Sciences: Their field of research is the human being, from a global perspective, as a member of a social community, and all that concerns them (e.g., History, Economics, Psychology, Sociology).
Formal Sciences
Formal sciences study abstract and ideal objects, which are the fruit of the human mind and not found in nature, such as mathematical calculations or logical reasoning. To verify their claims, they do not rely on experience but on logical reasoning and coherence (e.g., Logic, Mathematics).
Structure of Science
Scientific Law
Scientists, in their observation of nature, look for rules or regularities when a phenomenon occurs or the relationships between different facts. Laws are discovered, not invented, since the fact or regularity exists before the scientist is able to observe it.
Scientific Theory
Scientists gather confirmed observations and laws related to each other and obtain explanations about a particular area of reality. Scientific theories are the core of science since they guide research, how observations and data collection are made, explanation, and prediction. They are not limited to connecting laws but rather explaining the overall field of reality that the law describes. Theories affect a larger field of reality that cannot be explained solely by laws.
Conditions of a Scientific Theory
- Internal Order: The laws that constitute it are based on simplicity, with a few variables and a few key relationships between them, accounting for all.
- Deductibility: Some laws are deductible from others.
- Consistency: There are no contradictory statements between laws.
If these requirements are met, we say that the theory is consistent. A theory can be consistent and well-founded, but that does not ultimately mean that what we advocate is true. This is because the theory is also an interpretation and depends on the scientific point of view.
Scientific System
A set of theories can be integrated to form a scientific system. In a system, all the elements are interrelated and interact.
Deductive Method
The deductive method moves from the general to the particular. After a few trials or definitions, particular conclusions are drawn that are the necessary consequence of the former. The deductive method is characteristic of formal science. It is used in stage one of the investigation. Many scholars have considered this approach inadequate because, while useful for constructing valid arguments, its claims remain at the level of purely theoretical thinking and do not provide new content about reality.