Understanding Science: Reality, Methods, and Truth
ITEM 3
1. Substantive Objective Reality
Objective reality is opposed to reason and cannot be reduced to it. Geometric figures are objective realities studied in mathematics. It is synonymous with substantive reality or existing by itself.
2. Composition of a Science
Science is the body of knowledge about supposedly existing reality and objective realities. Each science has its object of knowledge (what we know) and method of knowledge (how we investigate). Sciences are characterized by their purpose and method.
3. Ontological Presuppositions
These identify reality with the cosmos, excluding supernatural reality or deeming it irrelevant to scientific knowledge. Natural phenomena have natural causes, and the same causes produce the same effects.
4. Epistemological Presuppositions
The order of the cosmos can be known and described. The truth or falsehood of this description is established through observation and experimentation. Scientific knowledge is universal.
5. The Question of Method
Is there a method, a sequence of rational steps, to enhance knowledge? Traditionally, the experimental method was proposed as the hypothetical-deductive method.
6. Classification of Sciences
6.1 Formal Sciences
Logic and mathematics, studied by the axiomatic method, focusing on logical-empirical structures.
6.2 Empirical Sciences
Divided into natural (physics, biology, medicine) and human (psychology), studied by the hypothetical-deductive method, exploring nature and humans.
7. Axiomatic Method in Formal Sciences
Deducing logically necessary consequences from self-evident axioms. An axiom system is true if it does not lead to contradictory propositions.
8. Hypothetical-Deductive Method Steps
- Observation of phenomena and problem approach.
- Hypothesis proposal.
- Conclusions.
9. Review of Hypothetical-Deductive Method
A) There may not be a fixed discovery method. B) The four steps are rational operations, not necessarily in a fixed order. C) Observation identifies a problem or set of episodes. D) The hypothesis is where scientific genius manifests. E) Obtaining consequences requires deductive talent. F) Experiment design is crucial and imaginative.
10. Law of Science
A formula describing a fixed rule of nature’s behavior. Ideally, laws always hold, but exceptions may exist. Laws describe observable phenomena. Mathematical formulas (e.g., Kepler’s laws, Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence) are ideal models.
11. Scientific Theory
An intellectual structure explaining a particular field of knowledge or phenomenon (e.g., Wegener’s theory of continental drift).
12. Ideal Structure of Scientific Theory
Consists of axioms aligned with phenomena. Newton’s laws exemplify an ideal model explaining natural movements. Some theories, like Wegener’s, are not directly verified by experiment but are theoretical assumptions.
13. Kuhn Paradigm
Thomas Kuhn’s concept of a paradigm as a reference theory for a field at a given time (e.g., Newtonian physics). Paradigm shifts lead to scientific revolutions and new periods of normal science.
14. Concept of Induction
Stating general laws from individual cases. Induction is a mechanism used in forming scientific laws.
15. Problem of Induction
The leap from observing particulars to a universal formula. A single contradictory case can invalidate the formula. Popper’s falsification addresses this.
16. Method of Human Sciences
Understanding human motives through interpretation (hermeneutics). Interpretation can be influenced by ideology, leading to multiple interpretations.
17. Science and Technology
Technical: Steps executed to do something, a training. Technology: Utensils used by a profession.
18. Origin of Science
Formal Science: Ancient Greece (mathematics, logic). Natural Sciences: Began in antiquity, developed since the late Middle Ages. Human Sciences: Started in antiquity, expanded in the 19th century.
ITEM 4
1. Truth and Opposition
Truth is agreement between thought/speech and reality. Lying is giving false information intentionally.
2. Certainty and Doubt
Certainty is firm conviction in the truth of a thought. Doubt is uncertainty about the truth.
3. Essence and Definition
Essence is expressed in a definition.
4. Essence and Classification
Essence does not serve to classify.
5. Existence of Science
Plato: Objective essences exist independently. Others: Essences are shared by individuals of the same kind.
6. Adequacy Theory
Knowing something truly when its substance matches our mental representation. a) Platonic: Essences mimic reality. b) Religious: God created the world based on an intellectual model.
7. Consistency
Two things are consistent if not contradictory.
8. Truth as Consensus
Truth established through mutual criticism in free and equal conditions.
9. Problem of Truth as Consensus
Is it possible to ensure truth through consensus?
10. Utilitarian Theory (W. James)
Knowledge is evaluated by its usefulness and benefits. Belief in God is useful for comfort and hope.
11. Pragmatist Theory
A theory is true if it yields positive results in practice.
12. Skepticism
Ranges from reasonable doubt to absolute skepticism, questioning the attainment of truth.
13. Prescriptive Truth in Facts
Truth can be easily verified in some cases (e.g., distance between two places).
14. Theory and Phenomena
Theories explain phenomena by identifying their causes.
15. Evidentiary Value of Experiment
Experiments have limited probative power, testing specific aspects of a theory.
16. Consistency in Empirical Sciences
A theory’s coherence with experience and other theories is evidence of its validity.
17. Other Theories
Some theories are accepted through consensus or due to superior explanatory power and consistency.