Understanding Society: Definitions, Structures, and Principles
General Notion of Society
The field of social anthropology studies the social and cultural activities of humans in society. A society can be defined as a set of individuals of both sexes and all ages, forming more or less permanent aggregates, subject to a common civilization. However, this definition is considered inadequate by Guy Rocher, who, like Durkheim before him in Rules of the Sociological Method (1985), argues that a society is not merely a sum of individuals united by a contract or understanding.
Some sociologists define society as a group of human beings capable of self-producing their collective existence, according to a system of rules for action that outlasts individual lifespans. Both definitions are partial and general, yet complementary, implying that a society is complex and requires additional elements for a comprehensive understanding. Global societies can be analyzed as super-systems encompassing sub-systems. These sub-systems, such as communities or local authorities (as termed by H. Mendro [1983]), interact indirectly, forming a chain within a larger super-encompassing system, like a country.
This perspective allows us to understand the general definitions of social worlds, both partial and overall. It is essential to consider key elements of social systems, such as small groups or “basic groups,” to understand societal structure. These groups are not defined solely by size but by the relationships between members and their articulation with the wider society. Informal groups, like people at a bus stop or in a cafeteria, are temporary and do not constitute basic groups. Basic groups must be organized with relatively permanent relationships. Henry Mendro’s definition of the “elementary group” or “primary group“ (a term coined by American sociologist Cooley) is insightful. Primary groups are characterized by intimate association and collaboration and are essential in forming an individual’s social nature and ideals. They create a sense of “we.”
The initial definition of society is particularly relevant to small communities studied by anthropologists. These societies consist of individuals living in a territory, subdivided into basic groups like domestic groups. For anthropologists, the household is a constitutive element of society, though not a society in itself. Since men are often forbidden to mate with their sisters, they seek wives outside their group, forming alliances with other domestic groups. This relationship is fundamental for a society’s existence and continuity.
The fundamental principles governing social life in many societies studied by anthropologists are kinship (its importance varies), gender, and age.
Sex is a determining factor, dividing society not only for procreation and childcare but also in work, religion, and politics. The division of labor often follows sexual lines, with tasks assigned based on gender. For example, in some societies, men hunt while women cultivate the land, or men are blacksmiths while women are potters.
Age is universally recognized, though societies differentiate age stages differently. In some societies, an old grandfather could be 40 or 70. In rural Ireland, a male is not considered an adult until he inherits from his father.
Kinship often governs social relations in many societies. In Nuer society, as studied by Evans-Pritchard, rights, privileges, and obligations are determined by kinship. In European industrial-urban societies, kinship’s role is diminished, competing with other social aspects, yet it remains socially significant. Biological families exist in all societies, but as Lévi-Strauss noted, the social aspect of kinship lies not in its natural basis but in how it is culturally structured, and this varies widely.
Contemporary human societies are diverse, existing in various geographical conditions and exhibiting unique social organizations and cultural forms. Many viable societies exist in remote locations, but exogenous forces often cause imbalances, leading to material poverty, cultural destruction, and even ethnic cleansing, as seen in the Amazon rainforest.