Understanding Sociology: Key Concepts and Thinkers
Definition of Sociology
Sociology is the science concerned with the study of social elements, both subjective and objective. It analyzes these elements and the relationships between them and the products they generate. Sociology studies specific phenomena at specific times and grapples with the problem of reflexivity (where the object of study is self-aware). Since its inception, sociology has had a dual nature: conservative (seeking to restore order) and revolutionary (seeking laws to understand how society functions).
Social Systems vs. Society
As time progresses, society becomes more complex. Social systems are a type of social structure. Different social systems include:
- Cultures: Simplified, organized relationships within community systems.
- Civilizations: Networks of cities.
- Societies: (18th and 19th centuries) Complex economic relations that attempt to integrate the greatest number of people, ensure common welfare, and promote freedom.
The Issue of Reflexivity: The Hawthorne Effect
The Hawthorne effect is a methodological problem that arises when the investigator fails to account for the reflexivity of the investigation. This occurs when the object of study is aware of being investigated and alters its behavior as a result.
Auguste Comte and Positivism
Auguste Comte, the founder of sociology, wrote “Course of Positive Philosophy” (1830-1842), where he first used the word “sociology” and established the basic principles upon which sociology should rest. Comte developed what he called “the law of the three stages”:
- Theological Stage: Religious interpretative framework, with the family as the basic unit. Domestic order is based on respect, and the material aspect is military.
- Metaphysical Stage: A transition between the theological and positive stages, where the world of gods is embodied in human figures.
- Positive Stage: Positive scientific rationality guides the lives of men. The material aspect is industrial, social unity is mankind, the type of order is universal, and feelings are of benevolence.
Herbert Spencer and Evolutionism
Herbert Spencer created evolutionism, viewing society and its people as a series of organs constantly evolving. This is a conservative view because it is closely aligned with the concept of order. Spencer also contrasted industrial society with aristocratic society.
Karl Marx and Marxism
Starting in the mid-19th century, Karl Marx initiated a tradition of critically examining social factors that cause social conflicts. He identified two main social classes: those who possessed the means of production and those who did not. These classes are linked to historical events, and the transition from one stage to another is determined by the mode of production. A mode of production consists of the productive forces, which change through thought, technology, and the relationship of people to technology and production. Historically, changes in the mode of production have involved two opposing social classes, ultimately oriented towards a society with only one class (the dictatorship of the proletariat) to achieve a classless society.
Theory: The value of work is measured by the time it takes to produce an object.
- Infrastructure: The system of relations established by people from an economic perspective.
- Superstructure: Values, beliefs, and thoughts used to make sense of the relations of production.