Understanding State Power, Sovereignty, and Global Politics

Posted on Dec 16, 2024 in Social sciences

Power

Power is the ability to exercise one’s willpower over others through material or non-material means, not necessarily through force, sometimes through the influence of other actors. It determines who gets what, when, and how.

Hard Power: Military, economic sanctions – threats and punitive actions that induce compliance.
Soft Power: Culture, influence and appeal, values, foreign policies, and diplomacy, without coercion or tangible rewards.

Three Faces of Exercised Power

Decision-Making: The power to take action, coercive or non-coercive.
Agenda-Setting: Determining which issues are brought to the table for discussion.
Thought Control: Preventing conflict from arising by shaping beliefs and preferences.

Sovereignty

Sovereignty is the ultimate authority over a given territory, with exclusive, absolute control of affairs without external influence.

State Sovereignty: A monopoly on the use of violence on subjects in a given territory.
Westphalian Sovereignty: External independence, internal supremacy. Non-aggression and non-intervention.
Social Contract Theory (SCT): A covenant where individuals cede individual freedoms to a central authority which represents the common will in exchange for peace and protection, to escape from the anarchic state of nature.
State: Monopoly on violence, legitimate authority, citizenship, taxation, territorial borders, constitutionality, executed by bureaucracy, and sovereignty.
Failed State: Unable to provide under the SCT.
De Jure State: A state in name but not in practice.
De Facto State: A state in practice but not in name.

Public Policy

Public Policy refers to government actions to tackle issues in society, implemented through tools and evaluated by the state.

Executive Branch: Implements policy.
Judiciary Branch: Interprets policy.
Legislative Branch: Makes policy.

Policy Cycle: Agenda setting, policy formulation, decision-making (lobbying, conflicts of interest, foreign influence), implementation, and evaluation.

Democracy

Popular Sovereignty: State sovereignty power comes from the consent of the people to be governed; ultimate decision-making power lies in the people, rather than some of them.
Political Equality: Eligible adult citizens have fair and equal access to participate in a democracy, decision-making regardless of background, status, or identity. The right to vote and run for office.
Political Consultation:
1. A feedback system for preferences.
2. Considered and respected, even if unsatisfactory.

Majority Rule: The majority represents the will of the people and must enact it through policy.

(Self-limiting through minority vetoes to prevent dominance and sidelining, but can affect political equality (double weight) and sovereignty (special privileges)).

Democratic-Authoritarian Sliding Scale:

Pluralism, media control.
Political legitimacy through public appeal.
Suppression of mobilization.
Shifting unchecked executive power.

Civil Society

Civil Society provides representation for groups in a democracy, active political participation, and bridges the gap between representative and direct democracy. It is the third sector, separate from private and public sectors.

In Democracies: Addresses under-serviced social sectors that states are unable or unwilling to address.
In Non-Democracies: Facilitates political participation without unrest.
Democratic Pluralism: Represents the rights and interests of all, fostering civic engagement and involvement.
Social Movements: Collective action to achieve, resist, or undo social change.
Bonding Capital: Connections within a group over a common cause, leading to discipline, sacrifice, and investment in an issue or movement.
Bridging Capital: Cross-group connections that increase the social base and popular sovereignty.
Linking Capital: Connections with other sectors of society. The role of the military is important in coups (protecting the elite).

Mass Media

Mass Media are mediums to communicate political messages and objectives to large groups of people (inform, educate, debate, hold accountable).

Framing: Presenting narratives that shape public opinion (agenda-setting and thought control).
Cyberutopianism: Emphasis on the positive aspects of the internet (can obscure political consultation) through echo chambers, which involve the same narratives, insulation from political dissent, and undermining democratic pluralism.

International Relations

Anarchy: No global authority; security is self-help, and military conflict is inevitable. Security is a zero-sum game.

Realism: States are self-interested rational actors that try to gain competitive power and security to protect sovereignty.
Security Dilemma: Intentions to increase defense signal a threat to other states, who are threatened by the stockpiling of arms. Under incomplete information, a dilemma ensues because states are always in military competition under the international anarchic system.
Liberalism: States are not concerned with relative gains but absolute gains. Under international anarchy and self-interest, mutual gains through cooperation are possible through democracy, international institutions, and interdependence.
Constructivism: State identities are socially constructed, not always operating rationally, influenced by ideas, concepts, elite beliefs, collective norms, and social identities.

Economic Liberalism

Economic Liberalism involves the complex interdependence of economies through trade. Free and open markets are efficient and collectively beneficial.

Comparative Advantage: Specialization when states produce goods at the cheapest, best, and lowest opportunity cost. They make up for others through trade.
Mercantilism: Nationalist, protectionist trade policies (taxing imports, subsidizing local infant industries against competition) challenge absolute gains through comparative advantage. (International organizations regulate fair practices).
World Trade Organization (WTO): Promotes reciprocity in lowering trade barriers to encourage trade, non-discrimination against foreign and domestically produced goods, and fair treatment between nations.
Structuralism: World Systems Theory posits that core nations exploit the periphery (which receive a small fraction of global wealth, and their labor and raw resources are depleted and exported to the core at low prices due to the relative underdevelopment of industry, poor governance, and education). Colonialism/imperialism leads to countries producing only one type of good and having to import necessities from the core, creating an “unhealthy” economy.

Development and Modernization

Modernization Theory: Development is linear; more economically modernized and wealthy states become more democratic (with a rising educated middle class participating).
Eurocentrism: Hierarchical, Western ideals of development. Creates a global South/North divide.
Foreign Aid: Donor countries send money and resources to recipients for education and infrastructure development for the benefit of their populations.
Remittance: Money earned by migrant workers sent home to their home country for friends and family.

Privilege and Identity

Privilege: Unearned, socially determined advantages based on membership and identity in a social group.
Intersectionality: Combination of advantages and disadvantages based on our identities and social groups.
Neo-racism: Antagonistic, discriminatory ideas and beliefs based on cultural differences.
Identity Groups: Political associations of people that share common social markers.
Minority Groups: Disempowered groups that have less equal access to positions of power, influence, and resources.
Descriptive Representation: Representatives possess similar traits and demographics of their constituents’ lived experience, leading to the belief that numerical representation equals better representation.
Substantive Representation: Representatives are able to represent the ideological interests of constituents.

Material vs. Non-Material Power

Power can be defined as the ability to control the behavior of others through the use of material or non-material resources. In politics, actors use a combination of strategies, combining material power such as military strength and economic resources with non-material power such as culture, ideologies, and diplomacy to achieve their goals. This essay argues that while material power is often the most visible and critical resource in ideas of high politics, particularly for state actors, non-material power can be equally decisive in specific contexts depending on the actor’s role and the circumstances they navigate.

From a realist perspective, material power is central to the functioning of states in an anarchic international system. States, as sovereign entities, maintain a monopoly on violence within their borders and transact with other states based on relative gains. In the zero-sum game of security, military and economic power are critical for sovereignty and security. For instance, wealth can fund technological advancements, bolster the military, and increase a state’s position in global trade, which are essential for maintaining power and deterring external threats. Without this power, sovereignty is threatened as weaker states will be dominated or intervened with by stronger powers.

Yet, material power is not always sufficient. States also rely on non-material resources such as cultural and ideological influence as a means of soft power to further their objectives. The role of soft power was demonstrated in the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, even in a period dominated by military conflict. While both maintained vast military arsenals, direct confrontation was avoided due to mutually assured destruction, and the powers turned to non-material strategies to navigate global norms and ideologies. For example, the United States employed cultural diplomacy and the promotion of democratic ideals to counter Soviet communism. Hollywood films, jazz music, and consumerist culture showcased the freedoms and prosperity of capitalism, fostering favorable perceptions worldwide. Similarly, the Soviet Union leveraged propaganda, support for revolutionary movements, and labor rights advocacy to spread communism and position itself as a leader of anti-imperialist struggles. Ultimately, the Cold War was less about military conflict and more about ideological dominance, with the U.S.’s effective use of soft power contributing significantly to its victory.

For non-state actors, such as NGOs and corporations, non-material power often takes precedence over material power. Unlike states, non-state actors operate within a structured international system and are protected or regulated by state authority under the social contract. Organizations like the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) rely on international donations and public support to fund conservation efforts. However, their influence extends beyond material resources, as they appeal to global responsibility for climate conservation and mobilize public opinion through campaigns and educational outreach. This strategic combination of material and non-material power enables them to achieve their objectives effectively.

While material power is crucial for state actors in protecting sovereignty, non-material power plays a decisive role in overall success. Even states use a combination of both to serve their goals. Hence, the most powerful actors use a skillful combination while adapting to the nuances of their adversaries and the landscape.