Understanding Syllables: Phonetics, Phonology, and Structure
The Syllable: Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetically: The way we produce syllables and the way they sound. Syllables consist of a centre which sounds comparatively loud. At the beginning and at the end of the centre, there will be greater obstruction to airflow or sound.
Minimum syllable: Single vowels in isolation, such as /ɑː/ or /ɔː/, are syllables. Other isolated sounds such as /ʃ/ or /ɱ/ must also be regarded as syllables.
- Syllable with an onset: Have more than silence preceding the centre; for example, bar /bɑː/, key /kiː/, more /mɔː/.
- Syllable with a coda: Have more than silence after the centre; for example, am /æm/, ought /ɔːt/, ease /iːz/.
- Syllable with an onset and coda: For example, run /rʌn/, sat /sæt/.
Phonologically: Possible combinations of English phonemes (phonotactics) in initial and final positions, including vowels, isolated consonants, or combinations of consonants.
The Structure of the Syllable in English
The syllable is a centrally important element in the description of the sounds of English. In describing the syllable, we also describe the grammar of permissible sequences of sounds in English words. Most syllables contain a vowel at the centre (excepting cases of syllabic liquids and nasals). The sound forming the central ‘peak’ of the syllable is usually known as the syllabic nucleus, although some writers (including Roach) call it the ‘peak’.
Vowels and Syllabic Consonants
Vowels: /ɑː/, /ɔː/.
Syllabic consonants: mm /m/ in button /’bʌtn/ and /l/, /r/, /m/, /n/.
Syllable Onset
Nothing: The simple case; for example, in /ɪn/, out /aut/.
Single Consonants
All the RP consonants can occur by themselves at the beginning of a syllable, except for /ŋ/. /ʒ/ only comes initially in words of foreign origin, such as ‘genre’; for example, hang /hæŋ/, top /tɒp/, find /faɪnd/, bout /baut/, mess /mes/, child /tʃaɪld/, rest /rest/, lake /leɪk/, joy /dʒɔɪ/.
Two Consonants at the Beginning of a Syllable
- /s/ followed by /p, t, k, m, n, f/; for example, spin /spɪn/, stick /stɪk/, skin /skɪn/, smoke /sməʊk/, snow /snəʊ/, sphere /sfɪə/.
- A consonant followed by /l, w, r/; for example, clay /kleɪ/, green /griːn/, thwart /θwɔːt/, swim /swɪm/, shrew /ʃruː/.
Three-Consonant Clusters
Can be analysed as sequences of pre-initial, initial, and post-initial segments. The possibilities are fairly limited.
- /r/: /k/ screen /skriːn/, /p/ sprain /spreɪn/, /t/ strip /strɪp/.
- /l/: /k/ sclerosis /sklərəʊsɪs/, /p/ split /splɪt/.
- /w/: /k/ squeak /skwiːk/.
Syllable Division
The maximal onset principle: Where two syllables are to be divided, any consonants between them should go to the syllable on the right, within the restrictions governing onsets and codas. Syllables with a short vowel and no coda do not occur in English.
Examples: Banana /bə’nɑːnə/, Banbury /’bænbəri/, reverse /rɪ’vɜːs/, redolent /’redələnt/, accuse /ə’kjuːz/, accurate /’ækjʊrət/, photography /fə’tɒgrəfi/, photograph /’fəʊtɒgræf/.
Word Stress – Guidelines
Simple: One morpheme: enter, deny, return, cotton, potato. Complicated rules, many exceptions.
Complex: Bound or unbound stem with bound morphemes (affixes; prefixes or suffixes): Singer, goodness, unlock, capable, conversation. Fairly simple and fixed rules.
Compound: More than one unbound morpheme: greenhouse, handbag, overcast, whitewash. Fairly simple rules, not many exceptions.
Simple Words: Phonological Structure
Heavy and Light syllables: A heavy syllable contains a long (tense) vowel /iː, ɜː, ɑː, ɔː, uː/ or a diphthong /ɪə, eə, ʊə, eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, əʊ, aʊ/, or ends in more than one consonant. Otherwise, the syllable is light. /ɪ, e, æ, ʌ, ɒ, ʊ/.
Two Syllables: Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions
Second syllable stressed if heavy: apply /ə’plaɪ/, correct /kə’rekt/. Otherwise, the first syllable is stressed: enter /’entə/, open /’əʊpən/. If əʊ (GOAT) occurs in the second of 2 heavy syllables, it generally becomes light: follow, borrow.
Examples: Descend, return, frighten, capture, obey, below, around, combine, under, quickly, perverse, rapid, respect, complex*, compact, construct, conduct, refuse.
Two Syllables: Nouns
Second syllable stressed if its vowel is tense (not enough to be heavy with a lax vowel): balloon /bə’luːn/, design /dɪ’zaɪn/. Otherwise, the first syllable is stressed: product /’prɒdʌkt/, absence /’æbsəns/.
Examples: Complex, compact, construct, conduct, esteem, return, concept, input, intake*, effect*, fortune*, compound*, command, texture, *refuse, machine, refrain.
Three Syllables: Verbs
Last syllable stressed if heavy: entertain, resurrect, introduce. Else stress on penultimate: encounter, remember, determine.
Examples: Consider, remodel, undertake, understand, ascertain, organize*, realize*, idolize*, specialize*, supplement*, terrify, captivate*, contradict, importune, verify*.
Three Syllables: Nouns, Adjectives
Penultimate syllable stressed if heavy: potato, disaster, synopsis. If the penultimate syllable is light and the final syllable has a lax vowel (even if heavy), the first syllable is stressed: quantity, cinema, intellect.
Examples: Accident, marigold, insolent, erudite*, enclosure, banana, wallaby, character*, acrostic, elephant, albatross, absolute, professor, photograph, horizon.
Complex Words: Suffixes
Have no effect or affect the stress-pattern.
- Attract the stress to the syllable before the suffix: photo-graphy, perfect-ion, tranquil-ity, -eous, -ious, -ial, -ic, -ive.
- Take the stress themselves: refug-ee, mountain-eer, Portugu-ese, cigar-ette, pictur-esque.
Compounds: Two Stems
Suitcase, sunrise, toothbrush; tooth-brush, car-ferry, hay-fever, web-page, hay fever, summer time. Variable stress. It’s upstairs, an upstairs bedroom. He’s bad-tempered, a bad-tempered man.