Understanding the French Revolution: From Ancien Régime to Napoleon
1. Defining the Ancien Régime
The Ancien Régime was characterized by:
- A stratified society (Clergy, Nobility, and Third Estate)
- An absolute monarchy
- A feudal economy based on agriculture, crafts, and local trade
It spanned from the 16th to the 18th century, ending with the French Revolution.
Transformation of the Ancien Régime
The political model shifted to a parliamentary monarchy and then a republic. Privileges of the nobility and clergy were abolished, establishing equality before the law. Capitalism emerged, as proposed by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations, leading to a class-based society.
2. The Enlightenment: The Century of Reason
The 18th century is called the Century of Reason or Enlightenment because rational explanation began to dominate, replacing superstition and tradition. Reason became the foundation for understanding the world.
3. The Enlightenment’s Reformist Approach
Enlightened reformists believed that the goal of life was the pursuit of happiness through material property. They asserted that governments must protect people’s assets and that reason was the only way to understand the world. They advocated for political reforms, emphasizing the government’s role in ensuring safety and protecting private property.
8. The Precarious French Treasury
In the late 18th century, the French Treasury was precarious because it spent much more than it earned, leading to deep debt.
9. Summoning the Estates General
The Estates General, not convened since 1614, was summoned because the nobility, clergy, and Third Estate had to consent to new proposals, particularly regarding taxation to address the state’s debt. The nobility, however, resisted paying taxes and rebelled against the king.
10. The Notebooks of Grievances
These notebooks contained complaints from peasants seeking the abolition of seigneurial rights, such as taxes for fire, milling wheat, and livestock feed. They reflected the grievances of the people as recorded by their representatives.
11. Ideological Foundations of the French Revolution
The French Revolution was fueled by sociological factors, including disputes initiated by the Third Estate; economic factors, such as a severe financial crisis due to debts; and political factors, leading to the summoning of the Estates General. The abolition of absolutism and manorial rights were also key elements.
12. From Radical to Moderate: The Revolution’s Phases
The Revolution cycled through moderate and radical phases:
Moderate Phase: Adherence to the Constitution of 1791 and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. This phase featured a constitutional monarchy with separation of powers. The Constituent Assembly established a tax system and rationalized church property. Key political parties included the Jacobins, Girondins, and Cordeliers.
Radical Phase: The monarchy was abolished in 1793, establishing a republic. King Louis XVI was guillotined. Under Robespierre’s leadership, the Reign of Terror resulted in numerous executions. Universal male suffrage was introduced. Robespierre was guillotined in 1794, ending this phase.
Return to Moderation: After Robespierre’s fall, the Girondins led, implementing a new Constitution in 1795. This period saw census suffrage and executive power vested in a Directory.
13. Essentials of the 1791 Constitution
The Constitution of 1791 included a Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and established a constitutional monarchy with a separation of powers. The Constituent Assembly, comprising Jacobins, Girondins, and Cordeliers, operated under a census-based voting system.
14. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
This constitution streamlined the clergy’s powers, subjected them to taxation, and made bishop and priest positions government-elected and salaried, aiming to alleviate the French debt.
15. Reasons for Radicalization in 1792
The revolution radicalized in 1792 due to elections called under universal suffrage to elect a new parliament, which promptly abolished the monarchy.
16. Political Clubs in the French Assembly
The French Assembly included the Jacobins, Girondins, and Cordeliers. The Girondins were characterized by their centralist stance.
17. Opposition to Napoleon
Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Spain opposed Napoleon due to their established absolutist systems and, in the cases of Russia and Spain, military challenges posed by Napoleon’s campaigns.
18. Napoleon’s Administrative Reforms
Napoleon centralized French administration, making departments dependent on ministers based in Paris.