Understanding the Hypothetical-Deductive Method in Science
Hypothetical-Deductive Method: This is a combination of the two methods, merging the reference to empirical data from induction with the generality and consistency of deduction.
– Definition of the Problem: It begins with the discovery of a problematic situation for humans.
– Formulation of Hypothesis: We propose a possible explanation, which must be coherent and consistent with the scientific attitude—rigorous, neutral, and verifiable.
– Deduction of Consequences: Using the deductive method, we draw the consequences if the hypothesis were true.
– Contrasting the Hypothesis: We check whether or not the expected consequences occur.
– Refutation of the Hypothesis: If the expected consequences are not met, we must reject the hypothesis and start the process anew.
– Confirmation of Hypotheses: When the expected consequences are met, the hypothesis is confirmed.
– Getting Results: We formulate a new law or theory; a theory is confirmed or proposed.
Hypothesis: An assumption about what happens in the world and its causes.
Verification: This involves verifying the truth of a hypothesis. We observe if the hypothesis assertion occurs in reality; if so, it will be confirmed by matching to the facts. (The only way to do this is by induction.)
Falsification: Proposed by Karl Popper as an alternative to the verification problem. It consists of testing the hypothesis by seeking facts to show that it is false. While the scenarios are not considered provisionally true, as soon as something opposing it is discovered, it will be rejected.
Falsificationism states that scientific laws are not characterized by their undoubtedly true nature, but by virtue of being falsifiable or refutable.
Naive scientism believes that science is the most perfect achievement of human rationality and predicts unlimited progress of science.
Karl Popper: The Continued Progress of Science. For falsificationists, no theory can be considered true, as it could be falsified in the future. However, science progresses because each new theory is closer to the truth.
Thomas Kuhn: Scientific Revolutions. He criticized the continuous and progressive vision of falsification. Analyzing the historical development of science reveals that false theories are often not abandoned and replaced by better ones.
Science has always, but especially since the Scientific Revolution, been seen as a way of knowing characterized by its independence and objectivity.
Collective Knowledge: That which a given society considers true at a particular point in time.
Research Depends on Political and Economic Institutions.
The economic and social priorities determine the scientific and research directions.
The complexity of current research has favored the existence of an international scientific community aware of what is researched worldwide.
The relationship between science and technology is now so close that scientists refer to it as techno.
Science and philosophy arose from a critical and inquiring attitude toward reality, and the subjects were initially indistinguishable. However, independent science of philosophy began to develop some methods applied during a period called the Scientific Revolution.
Galileo addressed the same issues that had concerned individuals dedicated to science before, but he did so in a different and revolutionary way.
Experimentation: He introduced an important novelty in the conception of the scientific method (the invention of an ideal situation where disturbing elements were eliminated).
Mathematization: Galileo stated unambiguously that nature can be described regularly using mathematical functions. This was a cornerstone of the new science, which was dominated by occult qualities and natural tendencies of the elements.
Formal P.. They do not address the facts and events occurring in the world but rather the relationships between symbols. They have no empirical content or basis in observation, but rely on the internal consistency of the system.
Logic
Mathematics
P. Empirical. They deal with the reality of the events taking place in the world and their relationships. They have empirical content that comes from observation and experience. Their claims must be verified through experience.
Natural. They deal with natural reality.
Chemistry
Biology …
Physics
Social or Human. They deal with social or human reality.
Sociology
History
Psychology
The more specialized a science becomes, the greater the distance between its language and common language. Artificial language ensures the objectivity and accuracy of the concepts, laws, and theories:
Concepts: They are the specific terms of each science and must be clearly defined:
Qualifiers: Organize reality.
Comparative: Gradually sort objects.
Metrics: Measure numerically.
Laws: They are the basic statements of scientific knowledge and are characterized by:
Using precisely defined concepts.
Universally determining a regularity of nature.
Theories: Science attempts to explain aspects of reality as broadly as possible. The scientific laws are interconnected with each other, forming compact, coherent, and consistent systems, which we call scientific theories.
A scientific explanation is therefore the response to a reason that has arisen from a particular event.
Ernest Nagel states that not all events require the same kind of explanation. Scientific explanations can be classified into four types: deductive, probabilistic, teleological, and genetic.
One method is a more or less fixed and stable process, consisting of several steps or rules that allow for a specific end.
Deductive Method: This involves extracting a particular conclusion or concrete result from data and general principles.
Inductive Method: This consists of drawing a conclusion from general to specific information or private cases. It has a significant advantage: it provides principles or laws applicable to all events of the same type. However, it presents several problems: its validity and reliability are often questioned.