Understanding the Old Regime: Society, Economy, and Absolutism
The Old Regime: Key Features
The Old Regime was characterized by three main features: a society divided into estates, an economic system heavily reliant on agriculture, and an absolute monarchy.
Class Society: The Estates System
Society was organized into three distinct orders, or estates:
- The Nobility: Divided into high and low nobility. The high nobility possessed extensive landholdings and significant wealth.
- The Clergy: Also divided into high and low clergy. The high clergy was often composed of younger sons from noble families.
- The Third Estate: Encompassed the vast majority of the population, including farmers (the largest group), the bourgeoisie (who had gained wealth through commerce and industry), and various working classes (servants, laborers, apprentices).
Economic System: Agriculture and Trade
Agriculture was the primary occupation for most of the population. It was largely subsistence farming, often unproductive, with most land dedicated to cereal crops. However, some regions also produced goods for trade, such as vineyards and olive groves in Mediterranean areas. Land ownership was concentrated in the hands of the privileged nobility and the clergy. Nobility land was never divided, and the clergy’s land (held in mortmain) could not be sold.
Industry and Trade
Industry was centered around small craft workshops, controlled by guilds. Foreign trade experienced rapid growth due to increased commerce between Europe and America. Domestic trade faced challenges due to guild controls, inconsistent weights and measures, and internal customs barriers.
Absolutism: Centralized Power
Absolutism was the dominant political system in most of Europe during the early 18th century. The monarch held absolute power, concentrating legislative, executive, and judicial authority.
The Enlightenment: Intellectual Foundations
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that flourished in Europe during the 18th century. Enlightenment thinkers operated from three core principles:
- Reason could be used to analyze society.
- Man was the central focus of their theories.
- Tolerance should be the foundation of human coexistence.
Liberalism: Challenging the Old Order
Liberalism provided the intellectual basis for the bourgeois revolutions. Key concepts, formulated by thinkers like Montesquieu and Rousseau, included:
- Separation of Powers: Montesquieu advocated for dividing governmental power among three branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) to prevent tyranny.
- National Sovereignty: Rousseau argued that power resided in the nation (the citizens). Citizens enter into a pact with the state, which is codified in a Constitution.
Liberal thinkers sought to abolish old privileges and establish a fairer legal and political framework. They also advocated for economic freedom, arguing that individuals should be free to start businesses and make economic decisions without state intervention. The state’s role should be limited to creating conditions for economic development.
Adam Smith argued that the economy is self-regulating through free competition, guided by what he called the “invisible hand” of the market. The law of supply and demand would naturally organize the economy without state control.