Understanding the Path to World War I: From Moroccan Tensions to the Balkan Crises
The Road to World War I
The Moroccan Crises
The First Moroccan Crisis (1905)
Triggered by Kaiser Wilhelm II’s visit to Tangier, the First Moroccan Crisis arose from Germany’s declaration of support for Moroccan independence. This move challenged the interests of France, Spain, Italy, and the United Kingdom, ultimately leading to the Algeciras Conference of 1906. The conference resulted in the division of Morocco, with Spain gaining control of the northern region and France controlling the central and southern areas.
The Second Moroccan Crisis (1910)
The presence of German ships in Agadir sparked the Second Moroccan Crisis, threatening British naval dominance. This crisis concluded with the Franco-German colonial agreement of 1911, establishing a French protectorate over Morocco and granting Germany a portion of French Congo, which was then added to Cameroon. While Germany expanded its African colonies, these crises isolated it in Europe and strengthened the Franco-British alliance.
The Balkan Crises
The Balkans presented a complex mix of ethnicities, languages, religions, and cultures, making the formation of homogeneous nation-states challenging. This, coupled with political instability and the waning control of the Ottoman Empire, created a volatile environment ripe for conflict. The ambitions of major powers further complicated the situation:
- Austria-Hungary and Russia sought to expand their influence in the region.
- Serbia and Bulgaria aimed to unite the South Slavs under a single state.
- Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Italy desired territorial expansion within the Balkans.
- The United Kingdom, Russia, and Austria-Hungary competed to develop the Balkan rail network.
The First Balkan Crisis (1908)
The Young Turk Revolution in the Ottoman Empire provided an opportunity for Bulgaria to declare independence, Greece to annex Crete, and Austria-Hungary to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina, thwarting Serbian aspirations in the latter.
The Second Balkan Crisis (1912)
Also known as the First Balkan War, this crisis involved Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece declaring war on the Ottoman Empire. The resulting Treaty of London stripped the Ottomans of all European territories except Constantinople. Bulgaria’s annexation of Macedonia, aiming to create a “Greater Bulgaria,” led to the Third Balkan Crisis.
The Third Balkan Crisis (1913)
This crisis, also known as the Second Balkan War, pitted Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and the Ottoman Empire against Bulgaria. The Treaty of Bucharest saw Bulgaria lose Macedonia, which was divided between Serbia and Greece, and Dobrudja to Romania. Albania gained recognition of its independence.
World War I (1914-1918)
The Outbreak of War
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist, ignited World War I. Germany’s assurance of unconditional support to Austria-Hungary emboldened the latter to issue a 48-hour ultimatum to Serbia on July 23, 1914. The ultimatum demanded Serbian acceptance of Austro-Hungarian intervention in its government, including control over education, the army, and nationalist ideology. Serbia’s rejection of the ultimatum led to Austria-Hungary breaking diplomatic relations and mobilizing its army, with Russia declaring support for Serbia. Despite mediation attempts by the United Kingdom and Germany, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, triggering a chain reaction of alliances and mobilizations that plunged Europe into war within a week.
Opposing Sides
The war quickly divided Europe into two camps:
- The Central Powers: Germany and Austria-Hungary.
- The Entente: France, United Kingdom, Russia (until 1917), Serbia, Belgium, and Luxembourg.
The Central Powers benefited from superior war preparedness, particularly Germany, with its modernized communications, weapons, and the Schlieffen Plan for invading France. The Entente, however, possessed greater manpower and resources through its colonies and controlled the sea routes. Over time, both sides gained allies:
- Central Powers: The Ottoman Empire (1914) and Bulgaria (1915).
- Entente: Japan (1914), Italy and Greece (1915), Romania and Portugal (1916), and the United States, China, and several Latin American nations (1917).