Understanding the Spanish Civil War: 1936-1939
ITEM 16: Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
From July 1936 to April 1939, Spain endured a devastating civil war, initiated by a military revolt and culminating in the victory of Franco’s rebel forces. The conflict pitted two ideological blocs: the Nationalist (Right) and the Republican (Left).
1. The Military Uprising
Following the Popular Front’s electoral victory, coup preparations began. General Mola, exiled to Pamplona, spearheaded the conspiracy as “The Director.” The clandestine military association, EMU, played a crucial role. By early July, plans were advanced. Sanjurjo, in Portuguese exile, was designated leader. Franco was to command the Army of Africa from the Canary Islands.
On July 12th, the assassination of Lieutenant Castillo, a Republican, by Falangists, and the subsequent retaliatory killing of Calvo Sotelo, a prominent right-wing figure, accelerated the coup. On July 17th, the uprising commenced in Melilla. By the 18th, it had spread across the Protectorate, with Franco assuming command of the Army of Africa. Uprisings in mainland Spain followed: Pamplona (Mola), Seville (Queipo de Llano), Mallorca (Coded), Zaragoza (Cabanellas). However, the coup failed in Madrid and Barcelona, where loyalist forces resisted successfully. The country became divided: the Republican zone encompassed the industrial north, Mediterranean Spain, Andalusia, Castilla-La Mancha, Extremadura, and Madrid. The Nationalist zone controlled Castile and León, Galicia, Navarre, La Rioja, Aragon, the Balearic Islands, and the Moroccan Protectorate, with enclaves in Republican territory. This conflict became the most brutal civil war in Spanish history.
2. Development of the War
1 – July to November 1936: Advance through Extremadura and First Attack on Madrid
The “war of columns” began. Nationalist forces aimed to capture Madrid. Mola’s army advanced from the north but was stalled in the Central System. Franco’s army crossed the Strait, conquering Mérida and Badajoz, linking with the northern Nationalist zone, and advancing towards Madrid. A detour to relieve the Alcázar of Toledo allowed Republicans to organize Madrid’s defense. The arrival of the International Brigades bolstered Republican resistance. The first attack on Madrid was repelled.
2 – November 1936 – October 1937: Battles around Madrid and Conquest of the North
Nationalist attempts to encircle Madrid failed at the Battle of Jarama (February 1937) and the Battle of Guadalajara (March 1937), a significant Republican victory. Franco then focused on the industrial north. The bombing of Guernica occurred in April. Bilbao fell in July. Republican offensives at Brunete (Madrid) and Belchite (Zaragoza) failed to prevent the fall of Santander and Asturias. By October, the northern industrial region was under Nationalist control.
3 – The Drive toward the Mediterranean (November 1937 – July 1938)
Republicans captured Teruel in winter 1937-1938, but Nationalists retook it and launched a successful offensive in Aragon, reaching the Mediterranean at Vinaroz (April 15th), isolating Catalonia.
4 – Battle of the Ebro and Conquest of Catalonia (July 1938 – February 1939)
In a desperate attempt, Republicans launched the Battle of the Ebro, led by General Vicente Rojo. After three months of intense fighting, Republicans retreated. Nationalists launched an offensive into Catalonia, capturing Barcelona in January 1939, leading to a mass exodus towards France.
5 – The End
By February 1939, the Republic controlled only the central zone. Negrín, the Republican Prime Minister, advocated for continued resistance, hoping for the outbreak of World War II. However, Colonel Casado led a coup in Madrid, establishing a Defence Council to negotiate with Franco. Franco demanded unconditional surrender. On April 1st, Franco declared victory: “The war is over.”
3. International Dimension
4. The Evolution of the Two Areas
4.1. Republican Spain
Lack of unity characterized Republican Spain. Political forces debated between prioritizing revolution or winning the war. Initial power resided with local committees. Largo Caballero formed a government of concentration, but internal conflicts persisted, particularly between anarchists and communists. Negrín succeeded Caballero, seeking an agreement with Franco and later advocating for resistance.
4.2. Nationalist Spain
Unity dominated Nationalist Spain. Franco unified diverse forces into FET y de las JONS. He assumed absolute power, abolishing political parties and imposing a fascist-style regime.
5. Consequences
Demographic: Massive casualties, exile, and population displacement.
Political: Establishment of a military dictatorship under Franco, suppression of political freedoms, and international isolation.
Cultural: Repression of intellectuals and censorship.
Economic: Post-war hardship, food shortages, and exclusion from the Marshall Plan.
6. Civil War in Castile and León
Nationalist forces quickly gained control. Generals Mola and Saliquet led the uprising. The region experienced limited military operations but severe repression. Some cities, like Salamanca and Burgos, played significant roles as Nationalist centers.