Understanding Truth, Reality, and Philosophical Perspectives
Truth and Reality: A Philosophical Exploration
Philosophers consider that facts and objects can be true or authentic, but propositions can also be true.
Truth of Facts
The “truth of facts” is established when we use the words “true” and “authentic.” This refers to objects and facts. Truth, in this sense, is identified with reality, authenticated against apparent reality. The pursuit of truth becomes a process of unveiling the authentic, which would otherwise remain hidden by appearances.
Truth as Propositions
This refers to whether the statements we make are real or not. There are two types of empirical propositions: truth and formal.
Truth as Empirical Propositions
- Truth as Correspondence: A proposition is true when there is a fit between what the proposition expresses and the reality to which it refers. Example: Mary and John went to the movies.
- Truth as Coherence: A proposition is true if it is not inconsistent with other accepted propositions. Example: The statement “if you go to the horizon, you go to the end of the world” is false because it contradicts the accepted proposition that the earth is round.
- Truth as Evidence: A proposition is obvious when we cannot doubt what we say; it is a kind of truth that need not be proven. Example: Anything is equal to itself; the whole is greater than the part.
Formal Truth of Propositions
- Truth as Success: A proposition is true when it is useful or when its implementation has positive results.
Limits to Ascertaining Truth
Dogmatism
Dogmatism is a philosophical position that argues that human beings can obtain secure, universal knowledge and be absolutely sure of it (Descartes, 17th century). Skepticism is the position against dogmatism.
Skepticism
There are two types of skepticism:
- Radical Skepticism: (Pirro, 3rd century BC) denies the human capacity to know. Reason can only know the appearance of things, but not reality.
- Moderate Skepticism: (David Hume, 18th century) also denies the possibility of certain knowledge, not because reason lacks the ability to know, but because it does not have a method to be sure whether or not a proposition agrees with reality. Example: No true propositions, only probable propositions.
Relativism
Relativism is a philosophical posture that denies the existence of absolute truth, that is, truth valid at any time and place. It considers that there are valid and specific opinions within a particular historical and social context. There are as many truths as individuals.
Perspectivism
Perspectivism (Sophists, 4th-5th century BC) posits that there is no objective and universal knowledge. Each individual or group knows from a particular perspective. Unlike relativism, it does not deny the possibility of an absolute truth that would comprise the set of all perspectives (Ortega y Gasset, Nietzsche, 20th century).
Criticism
Criticism is a middle ground between dogmatism and skepticism. According to this theory, knowledge is possible but not definitive; it is questionable and has to be reviewed and critiqued for possible errors (Kant).
Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism (18th century) is the position that it is impossible to compare or evaluate the characteristics of different cultures.
Universalism
Universalism suggests a rejection of ethnocentric attitudes to prevent the imposition of some cultures on others.
Interculturalism
Interculturalism stems from the recognition of cultural plurality as an enriching fact.
Ethnology
Ethnology is the science that studies physical and mental aspects of cultures.
Acculturation
Acculturation is the imposition of cultural elements from another culture.
Inculturation
Inculturation is the process by which an individual assimilates and owns cultural contents and forms of the group they belong to and with which they identify.
Natural Selection
Natural selection is a filter that favors the existence of individuals better fit for the environment, causing the disappearance of others. It operates through these principles:
- Within each species, a large number of individuals with minor variations occur at random, generation after generation.
- Due to resource constraints and other reasons, not all descendants can survive.
- The evolutionary process is gradual and continuous, not abrupt.
- Currently existing species originate from a single species.