Understanding Values: Philosophical Perspectives and Types
What Are Values?
The term ‘value’ is often used to talk about the price of a commodity, giving it an economic meaning. Sometimes, it is said that a piece of art has great value. In this context, it has value as a human creation, but it might be impossible to set a precise economic value for it.
Key aspects of values include:
- Unreal Objects on Real Objects: Values cannot be seen, touched, or smelled; they are not perceived directly by human senses. For example, goodness itself cannot be touched. However, values are associated with real things or actions.
- Estimated Things: People have the ability to estimate or judge value, determining if a person or action is good or bad, desirable or undesirable.
- Subjective Existence: Values exist for those people who feel or recognize them. In this sense, values can be considered subjective.
The Subjectivist Viewpoint on Values
Subjectivism relates everything to the individual; value depends on the subject. For example, the view we take on an issue is ours, even if it coincides with others’ opinions. A clear example of this position is Friedrich Nietzsche’s theory. For him, things are considered good because we desire them; we do not desire them because they are inherently good in themselves. He aimed to create a morality beyond good and evil as objective concepts defined by traditional Western morals, arguing that things considered ‘good’ by this morality often restrict life, preventing people from enjoying it fully.
The Objectivist Viewpoint on Values
Objectivism posits that values do not depend on individuals but are inherent or set independently. Science provides a clear analogy: scientists work on discovering natural laws, but those laws exist independently of the scientists themselves.
Rousseau vs. Hobbes on Societal Values
Both Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Thomas Hobbes believed society is responsible for establishing the values that govern its operation. However, they differed significantly:
- Rousseau: Believed humans are inherently good by nature but need society to obtain things they cannot get alone. Society helps realize this goodness.
- Hobbes: Argued humans are inherently self-interested (‘evil’ in the sense of prioritizing self-preservation aggressively) and capable of destroying each other. They need society and established values to ensure survival. This requires partnering and delegating absolute power to a sovereign (the *Leviathan*) to enforce these values and maintain order.
Nietzsche’s Perspective on Value Creation
Reiterating his core idea, Friedrich Nietzsche argued that things are deemed good because we desire them, not because of any intrinsic goodness. Nietzsche sought to establish a morality ‘beyond good and evil,’ challenging conventional value systems.
Key Characteristics of Values
Values possess several distinct characteristics:
- Worth: While not physical objects, values possess inherent worth or importance.
- Non-Independence: Values are always attached to objects, people, or actions. For instance, the value of ‘goodness’ is attached to things or individuals regarded as good.
- Polarity: Values typically exist in pairs of opposites (e.g., good vs. evil, beauty vs. ugliness).
- Quality: Values are assessed based on their quality, not quantifiable amounts.
- Hierarchy: Values can be ranked; some are considered more important than others, forming a hierarchy.
A Classification System for Values
Values can be categorized in various ways:
- Sensitive Values: Perceived physically or related to physical objects (e.g., economic values, aesthetic/artistic values).
- Vital Values: Related to life and well-being (e.g., health, fitness vs. sickness, disease).
- Spiritual Values: Apprehended through reasoning and intuition concerning non-material aspects (e.g., knowledge, beauty, justice).
- Religious Values: Related to the sacred, divinity, and faith (e.g., holiness, piety, respect for God or religious institutions).
- Moral Values: Rules, principles, and virtues that guide human behavior and define duties within society to ensure its proper functioning (e.g., honesty, fairness, kindness).