United States & Japan: Rise to Global Power

Posted on Nov 27, 2024 in History

For decades, Europe was the center of the world. However, in the 1960s and 70s, this shifted, with Japan and the United Kingdom emerging as major global players, soon surpassing Europe.

United States

Population Growth: Initially inhabited by indigenous populations, known as the “Red,” the British arrived in 1773, settling 13 geographic sites along the Atlantic Coast. On July 4, 1776, the United States was founded. This new nation experienced significant and consistent population growth, driven by both natural increase and substantial immigration. Europe’s relatively stagnant economy and limited opportunities fueled this migration to a new continent offering abundant resources and sparsely populated lands. The availability of resources and a shortage of manpower in the U.S. contrasted sharply with the saturated conditions in Europe. Effective transportation, though initially limited by railway infrastructure (with only one line connecting northern and southern states), facilitated westward expansion. Propaganda highlighting the country’s beauty and resources further encouraged immigration. Early immigrants wrote letters and novels to their home countries, inspiring others to seek opportunities in the U.S. Mass immigration occurred around 1840, with a temporary decline during the Civil War, followed by renewed waves between 1865-1880 and 1880-1924. The first wave brought approximately 4 million people, primarily British, Dutch, and German men and young adults. By 1870, 85% of the population was under 45. Many settled on the East Coast, leading to the growth of major cities like New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. Others moved south to work on large agricultural plantations, or west, where early settlers were primarily farmers and ranchers. American society differed from Europe’s; lacking a noble aristocracy, it comprised industrialists, merchants, and farmers, initially without a significant proletariat. However, conflicts arose between sheep farmers and cattle ranchers over grazing lands. Indigenous and Black populations also faced significant challenges. Black Americans in the South were subjected to slavery and lacked equality before the law and civil rights, a key factor leading to the Civil War. Indigenous populations faced systematic oppression and displacement, eventually being confined to reservations in the late 19th century. Immigration slowed considerably between 1862 and 1912.

Causes and Stages of Territorial Expansion: The 13 original colonies expanded westward to the Pacific Coast. These colonies were: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. While not initially planned, westward expansion was fueled by several factors: abundant grasslands suitable for farming, vast tracts of land for livestock, and the gold rushes in California and Alaska. The construction of railroads, particularly between 1869 and 1873, significantly accelerated this expansion, leading to the creation of new states and the emergence of four distinct regions:

• Northwest: Characterized by strong industrial development (a key factor in the Civil War, as the North was more industrialized than the South), abundant mineral resources, and strategic ports. Canal systems connected inland waterways to the sea and rivers, facilitating trade. This region was densely populated and highly urbanized, with the development of banking and financial centers.
• South: Dominated by large-scale agricultural production, particularly cotton, primarily for the domestic market and export to European industries (especially England). New Orleans served as its primary port.
• Central West: Primarily an agricultural region focused on wheat production.
• Far West: Located near the Rocky Mountains, this arid region featured large cattle ranches and less dense urban development.

Individualism played a crucial role in shaping American democracy. Regional differences led to varied policy approaches, stemming from the contrasting ideologies of founding fathers like Jefferson and Washington. Two major political parties emerged, one representing the industrial North and the other the agrarian South. Debates centered on states’ rights versus national interests. President Jackson’s policies aimed to democratize the country, challenging the dominance of industrial interests and promoting local concerns. Investments in education (schools and libraries) and media (newspapers) fostered greater civic participation.

The Civil War (1861-1865): The war, fought between the North (above the 36°30′ parallel) and the South, solidified the American nation. While slavery was a major cause, economic and lifestyle differences also played significant roles. The North favored protectionism and high tariffs, while the South, with its climate-suited cotton production, favored free trade. Differing conceptions of the state—whether a federal union, a confederation, or a collection of independent states—further fueled the conflict. Southern states feared the rapid industrial and population growth of the North and West. The North’s abolitionist stance contrasted sharply with the South’s reliance on slave labor for cotton production. In 1861, the U.S. had approximately 8.5 million people, including 1.5 million Black Americans, of whom 1.3 million were enslaved, mostly in the South. The Missouri Compromise of 1820 prohibited slavery north of the Ohio River and east of Missouri, contributing to regional disparities. The enslaved Black population, largely descendants of those forcibly brought from Africa, lacked civil rights and were considered property. The early 19th century saw the emergence of slave states and free states. The 1808 Congressional ban on the importation of slaves from Africa, the rise of anti-slavery societies, and debates over solutions (including repatriation to Africa) marked this period. Missouri’s 1819 request for statehood as a slave state, along with Louisiana’s, led to the Missouri Compromise, which prohibited slavery north of a specified latitude. Continued immigration to free states shifted the balance of power in the House of Representatives, increasing Southern anxieties. Hopes for industrial development in the South to reduce reliance on the North proved unfounded, leading to resentment. South Carolina’s 1832 refusal to pay tariffs further heightened tensions. The South’s inability to expand into remaining territories (Mexico’s Texas, New Mexico, and California) added to its grievances. Texas’s 1836 rebellion against Mexico, culminating in the Battle of the Alamo and subsequent U.S. annexation of the territory, exacerbated the situation. California’s status as a free or slave state became a major point of contention. The 1850s saw the rise of the Republican Party, advocating for abolitionism and westward expansion, further alienating the South. Abraham Lincoln’s 1860 election, with his anti-slavery stance and support for tariffs, triggered secession. The Confederate States of America, comprising eleven Southern states, declared independence. The attack on Fort Sumter in South Carolina in 1861 marked the start of the war. While the South initially held advantages in population, soldiers, and resources, the North’s industrial capacity and superior infrastructure proved decisive. The war featured two main fronts, east and west of the Appalachian Mountains. Early victories favored the South, but the North’s strategy of cutting off Southern supply lines and capturing key ports like New Orleans proved effective. The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 declared slaves in Confederate-held territory free. The Battle of Gettysburg marked a turning point. Lincoln’s reelection in 1864 signaled the North’s growing momentum. Lee’s surrender at Appomattox in 1865 ended the war, but Lincoln’s assassination shortly after raised questions about Reconstruction. The South was divided into five military districts, with Union officers overseeing governance and the emancipation of slaves. Former Confederate leaders were barred from holding office. By 1868, several Southern states rejoined the Union. The plantation system collapsed, and the North and South entered a period of economic symbiosis. Three constitutional amendments abolished slavery, granted citizenship to former slaves, and enfranchised Black men. The Freedmen’s Bureau aided in the transition of formerly enslaved people to civilian life, though full social integration remained elusive.

The Civil War is considered a pivotal conflict, representing several innovations in warfare:

1. Citizen soldiers fighting as an integrated army.
2. Ideology as a major motivating factor, beyond territorial expansion or dynastic claims.
3. Strategic and tactical sophistication.
4. Total war, aiming to destroy all aspects of the enemy’s capacity.
5. Use of the telephone and railroad.
6. Ironclad warships.
7. Introduction of breech-loading rifles, machine guns, submarines, and landmines.
8. Landmines, though considered barbaric and ineffective.
9. The strategic use of railroads, as demonstrated by General Johnston’s rapid troop movement.
10. Presence of European observers, though photographic documentation was limited to post-battle scenes.

The North controlled ¾ of the nation’s 30,000 miles of railroad track, linking the Mississippi Valley to the coast. Railroad expansion continued throughout the war, serving both strategic and logistical purposes. Rail cars were also used as field hospitals. Both sides utilized civilian telegraph networks, with the North expanding its network significantly, creating the Military Telegraph Corps (composed of civilians). Morse code and encryption were used, and espionage played a role. Flags, torches, and lights were used for short-range communication. Both sides employed balloons for reconnaissance, with the South pioneering this method. Newspapers inadvertently revealed troop movements. The South lacked a formal intelligence agency, while the North utilized the Pinkerton Detective Agency, though its reports were often inaccurate. By 1863, the North established a more effective intelligence office. Pontoon bridges were constructed to replace destroyed bridges. Initially, trench warfare was limited, but its adoption increased as the war progressed, with the South pioneering its use. Medical care was rudimentary, with high mortality rates due to a lack of antiseptic techniques and hygiene. Both sides established medical corps, with the North employing 10,000 surgeons and the South 4,000. Amputations were common. Hospitals evolved from repurposed buildings to purpose-built structures. Chloroform was used as anesthesia when available. The South relied on smuggled medicines from Europe. The Sanitary Commission and Christian Commission played crucial roles in providing medical care, supplies, and morale support to Union soldiers. Photography documented the war, though battle scenes were rarely captured. Martin Brandi’s work is particularly notable. To ensure identification of fallen soldiers, metal or wooden tags were used.

Economic Potential of the United States and its Rise to Global Power: Economic development requires both physical and human resources. The U.S. possessed abundant uncultivated land, mineral wealth (coal in Pennsylvania, oil in Texas and Appalachia, gold in California and Alaska), and a growing population of young men. The U.S. leveraged European advancements in agriculture, livestock, and industry (particularly iron and steel). Scientific and technical investments, modeled after England, fueled innovation. American industries focused on mass production to lower costs, unlike the more established English industries. The widespread availability of banking facilitated economic growth. Improved communication networks (waterways, railroads, and ports) supported economic specialization in agriculture. A large consumer market with significant purchasing power fueled manufacturing. The late 19th century saw the rise of entrepreneurs focused on maximizing profits and encouraging consumption. Investment in capital, particularly from Europe, accelerated industrial growth. The Industrial Revolution reached the U.S. around 1860. Economic depressions occurred (1837-38, during the Civil War, and 1929), but the U.S. avoided major economic setbacks during World War I, experiencing a period of expansion known as the “Roaring Twenties.” Post-World War II, the U.S. further solidified its economic dominance, surpassing England as the leading industrial power.

Japan

Characteristics Before the Meiji Restoration: From the 16th century, the Emperor (Mikado) resided in Kyoto, holding a largely symbolic role. Actual political and military power rested with the Shogun. Japan was composed of feudal domains ruled by independent lords (daimyo). A council of elders advised the Shogun, primarily focused on controlling the daimyo. The Shogun’s system of alternate attendance, requiring daimyo to spend a year in the capital and leave their families as hostages, weakened both the daimyo and the central government. Samurai held high social status as warriors, adhering to a code of loyalty, duty, courage, and honor. The majority of the population were peasants, bound to their lords’ lands and required to surrender half their harvest. Artisans formed a small, distinct class. Japan’s economy was largely closed, focused on feudal agriculture and lacking significant external trade. The Tokugawa Shogunate’s policy of isolation limited contact with the outside world. While some segments of the population desired foreign relations, others resisted Western influence. The arrival of British ships in 1853 forced the Shogun to acknowledge Japan’s vulnerability and the potential of Western technology. Subsequent treaties with the U.S. and European powers, though granting trade access, resulted in limited economic benefits for Japan and some humiliating concessions. Competition from cheaper and more varied foreign goods led to protests from farmers and artisans. The daimyo of Satsuma and Choshu, along with the Mikado, exploited this situation to challenge the Shogun’s authority.

The Meiji Restoration (1868) resulted in:

1. Restoration of imperial authority.
2. Increased Western influence.

This was a revolution from above, driven by a desire to learn from and adapt to Western advancements. The Meiji government established legal equality and aimed to create a modern constitution. Legal equality was largely achieved by 1871, transforming Japan from a feudal society into a modern state with a constitution (1889), a parliament, and an industrial economy.

Political Reforms: Following World War I, Japan emerged as a major global power alongside the United States, as European powers declined. The restoration of the Mikado also involved a religious shift, with Shinto becoming the dominant religion, fostering national unity and facilitating the adoption of Western political institutions and technologies without significant societal resistance. The government recruited highly skilled leaders, sending students to Western universities and inviting foreign specialists to train Japanese personnel. Japan adopted aspects of the German military system, British legal systems, and French naval engineering.

The Constitution of 1889: Issued by the Emperor (who had traveled to Austria and Germany), it blended conservative and liberal elements, establishing a constitutional monarchy. Political parties emerged in 1881 (the Liberal Party, composed of landowners) and 1882 (the Progressive Party, comprising students, intellectuals, and businessmen). The Emperor retained significant power, including the ability to amend the constitution, suspend parliament, and make decisions outside of parliamentary sessions. Succession to the throne remained a prerogative of the imperial family. The executive branch comprised ministers responsible to the Emperor and the bicameral Diet (parliament). The House of Peers consisted of nobles and appointees of the Emperor, while the House of Representatives was elected by census suffrage. The judicial branch was represented by a Council of Judicial Affairs. The constitution guaranteed freedom of the press, speech, assembly, and religion (with Shinto becoming the state religion), along with freedom of private property. Administrative divisions were established, modeled after French prefectures. Consultative assemblies disseminated reformist ideas, promoting deregulation while maintaining the Emperor’s authority. A modern army was created, replacing the samurai, with compulsory military service introduced in 1873. These changes fostered social mobility and national unity. Tax reforms, a new currency (the yen), and land reforms (converting land ownership from feudal to individual) stimulated economic growth. The state borrowed heavily from foreign countries. Japan adopted Western customs, including dress and the Gregorian calendar. To address high illiteracy, the Ministry of Public Instruction was established in 1871, introducing free and compulsory education, teacher training schools, and the University of Tokyo. The reformers successfully integrated former nobles and samurai into the new system.

Industrialization: Despite its limited natural resources (primarily forests, small and low-quality deposits of iron and coal on Honshu and Kyushu), Japan rapidly industrialized, encompassing both phases of the Industrial Revolution within a short period. The state played a central role, acting as an entrepreneur, setting goals, and supporting private companies. This state involvement gradually decreased as the private sector expanded. Abundant labor, though with low wages, fueled mass production at affordable prices. Profits were reinvested in improving facilities and machinery. The Mikado and Shinto religion provided national unity. Traditional industries, such as silk production, adapted to incorporate new technologies. Japan’s mountainous terrain and uneven population distribution led to the concentration of economic power in the hands of a few powerful families (Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Mitsui). Key industries included transportation, textiles, and construction.

Japanese Imperialism: While initially subject to unequal treaties, Japan sought to shed these limitations and achieve equal diplomatic standing. Several factors fueled Japanese imperialism: a shortage of raw materials, a desire to assert its position against Western powers, and the need for population resettlement. Japan’s expansion began with the annexation of the Kuril and Ryukyu Islands in 1873 and increased immigration to Korea. The Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) resulted in Japanese victory and the acquisition of Formosa (Taiwan), the Pescadores Islands, and favorable trade concessions from China. A military alliance with Britain in 1902 marked Japan’s entry into major international relations. The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) saw Japan’s victory over Russia, both at sea and on land. President Roosevelt’s mediation led to the Treaty of Portsmouth, which allowed Japan to occupy Manchuria. The defeat of a major Western power boosted Japan’s international standing and led to the annexation of Korea in 1910. World War I further facilitated Japanese expansion, with the occupation of German territories in Asia and the Pacific. The Washington Conference of 1922 limited Japan’s naval expansion and restricted immigration to the U.S., causing resentment. The Tanaka Memorial, advocating for further expansion into Southeast Asia, was never implemented. In the 1930s, Japan’s imperialism intensified, with the occupation of Manchuria and subsequent conflicts with China. Japan’s actions were condemned by the League of Nations. Further expansion into Indochina clashed with the interests of Britain, France, and the Netherlands. The attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 brought Japan into World War II. Following Japan’s defeat in 1945, its empire was dismantled.