Urban Planning and Development: A Historical Perspective
Urban Planning and Urbanism
Defining urban planning and its relationship to urbanism requires careful consideration. Both fields involve the study of urban spatial dimensions, but their actions within urban spaces differ significantly. Historically, urban planning has focused on urban design and the overall layout of cities, often without considering the city’s role within a complex social process. In contrast, urban development addresses the processes that shape cities, including the indirect impact on urban design.
Urban planning is inherently multidisciplinary, while urbanism has historically been considered an autonomous discipline, particularly from a professional standpoint. However, the practical boundaries between design and planning are often blurred. Urban interventions are sometimes treated as “construction planning,” while typical planning activities, such as creating master plans, can be seen as “urban design works.”
Distinguishing between these two disciplines is further complicated by their intertwined history. While academia generally agrees that urbanism emerged as an autonomous discipline in the 19th century and urban planning as an academic interest in the 20th century, cities have been planned and designed since the dawn of civilization. The history of cities (or more accurately, urban development) parallels the history of human society, but the study of human intervention in cities is a more recent development. When considering that urban planning primarily deals with the rules governing the use, production, and ownership of urban space, its history diverges from the design of cities.
History
The former Tenochtitlan, view east. Image of the mural painted at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.Evidence suggests that human civilization has engaged in limited-scale planning since 3500 BC. Hippodamus, known for his theories on optimal land use and the placement of streets and buildings in Miletus and Piraeus, is often considered the father of Greek urban planning.
Muslims are frequently credited with the development of zoning, designating specific areas for commerce, residences, religious practices, and other purposes.
Many pre-Columbian civilizations incorporated planning into their cities, including sewage systems and running water. Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, was built on an island in Lake Texcoco (present-day Mexico City). At its peak, Tenochtitlan was one of the world’s largest cities, with a population of approximately 250,000.
Antiquity
The Indus Valley Civilization, around 2600 BC, is often regarded as the first to develop a sense of urban planning. Small towns evolved into cities with populations exceeding thousands, many of whom were not primarily engaged in agriculture, fostering a unified culture. The emergence of these large, organized cities suggests deliberate planning. Settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization, such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, appear to have been designed according to a standardized grid, with a hierarchy of streets (from commercial boulevards to small residential roads) to protect residential areas from noise, odors, and theft.
Ancient Romans employed a standardized urban planning approach focused on military defense and civil convenience. The basic plan consisted of a central square with city services, surrounded by a grid of streets and enclosed by a defensive wall. Two diagonal streets crossed the square to minimize travel time. A river typically flowed through the city for water supply, transport, and sewage disposal, even during sieges. Many European cities, like Turin, still retain elements of this Roman plan.
Ancient city inhabitants designated areas for gatherings, recreation, trade, and religious worship. Many cities were walled for protection against enemies. Public buildings and monuments, as seen in Rome and Athens, are further examples of urban planning in antiquity.
Middle Ages
Walls protected many medieval cities and manors. As populations grew, some cities expanded beyond their walls, either demolishing them or leaving them standing and building new settlements around the old city. Religion played a central role in medieval life, reflected in the prominent placement of the main church, often the largest, tallest, and most elaborate structure, in the city center.
Many Latin American civilizations implemented urban planning measures, such as sewage systems and drinking water. Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, exemplifies this, situated on an island in Lake Texcoco and reaching a population of approximately 250,000.
Renaissance
During the Renaissance, urban planners designed large-scale city sections to address overcrowding. Examples include St. Peter’s Square in Venice and St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican. The Palace of Versailles in France, a planned mini-city, is another notable example.
Artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo contributed to the design and beautification of Italian cities in the 15th and 16th centuries. Georges-Eugène Haussmann’s design of grand avenues and squares in 18th-century Paris contributed to the city’s global recognition for its beauty.
Some colonial American cities, such as Charleston, Philadelphia, and Savannah, were planned before construction. Washington, D.C., planned by Pierre Charles L’Enfant at George Washington’s behest, is a prime example.
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries led to rapid urban population growth as people migrated from rural areas to work in factories. Cities became overcrowded, dirty, and noisy, with many inhabitants living in unsanitary conditions, often with entire families crammed into small houses near factories.
Social reformers advocated for government intervention to improve living conditions, proposing zoning plans with houses, gardens, and green spaces, as well as the separation of industrial and residential areas. While municipalities and governments took some steps, the rapid urban growth often outpaced these efforts.
The 1893 Chicago World’s Fair presented an idealized city vision with wide avenues and grand public structures, marking the beginning of the City Beautiful movement in the United States.
Twentieth Century – Present Times
Islamabad in Pakistan.By the late 19th century, urban planning in industrialized nations was primarily handled by architects employed by private companies or, less frequently, by the government. Growing urban problems forced governments, particularly in the United States, to become more involved in urban planning.
The Modern Movement in architecture and urbanism viewed urban planning as a technical, politically neutral scientific endeavor. This thinking was formalized by the CIAM (Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne, or International Congress of Modern Architecture) and the Athens Charter. This approach sometimes resulted in urban sprawl projects disconnected from the actual needs of communities. Brasilia’s pilot plan exemplifies this modernist planning.
Between 1900 and 1930, many U.S. cities established city planning committees and zoning laws. The Burnham Plan, which revitalized much of Chicago, is a notable example of urban renewal during this period.
The population boom of the 1950s and 1960s brought challenges like congestion, pollution, slums, and homelessness. Urban planning agencies expanded their programs to include new housing, recreational areas, and improved commercial and industrial districts.
Currently, urban planning in developed countries typically involves collaboration between government agencies and private companies. In developing countries, however, urban planning is undergoing redefinition. After periods of centralized and often authoritarian planning, which resulted in sprawling urban peripheries characterized by quantitative rather than qualitative residential projects, recent decades have seen a shift towards planning as a mediator in social conflicts over urban land. The focus, at least academically, has moved from regulating land use to addressing speculative processes in urban space production. This has led to the concept of participatory planning, where decisions are made democratically, with the planner acting as a facilitator rather than an author. In contrast, theorists like Manuel Castells have proposed strategic planning, which views cities within the logic of global competition and their place in a network of global cities.