Urban Public Transport: A Comprehensive Overview

Posted on Oct 26, 2024 in Geography

Urban Public Transport

A streetcar company’s public transport from Toronto, Canada.

Public transportation in a city provides the displacement of people from one point to another area of that city. The vast majority of medium and large urban areas have some kind of urban public transport. Its adequate supply in countries like Portugal and Brazil is usually a municipal responsibility, although the city may grant licenses, sometimes accompanied by subsidies, to private companies.

Urban public transport is an essential part of a city. It reduces pollution because fewer cars are used for the transportation of people and enables the movement of people who do not possess a car or need to travel long distances to work.

History

In 1662, Blaise Pascal, with a license from King Louis XIV to explore five routes with coaches, laid the concepts that would guide the collective public transport service. In his contract, the service should meet the following criteria:

  • The cars would follow the same path from one point to another.
  • Departures would obey regular times, even without passengers.
  • Each occupant would pay only for their place, regardless of how many places were occupied in the cars.
  • The route around Paris would be divided into five sectors; the rate of five cents would cover only one sector. A new price would be paid for each additional sector.
  • Gold would not be accepted as payment, in order to avoid delays.

The service lasted for fifteen years after Pascal’s death that year. However, restrictions limiting its use to those of certain “conditions” and an increased rate to six cents gradually diminished the business’s popularity until it became extinct in 1677.[1]

Only 150 years later, in 1826, with the creation of the bus by Stanislas Baudry in Nantes, France, the concept of public transport would be resumed, still using the same criteria established by Pascal, which, incidentally, are still found today in modern public transport.

In 1828, Baudry himself founded the Entreprise Générale des Omnibus in Paris to operate public transportation in the French capital. Soon after, his son would start similar ventures in Lyon and Bordeaux.[2] Abraham Brower[3] established the first line of public transportation in New York in 1827. In 1829, the innovation came to London through George Shillibeer and thereafter quickly reached major cities in America, Europe, and other parts of the world.

Fila school bus in Belo Horizonte serving a public school.

The bus was the first mode of transport to serve public transportation. Originally pulled by horses (known as Americans in Portugal), more popular systems were developed using trams, incorporating trails and then replacing animal traction with electricity.

In 1863, the inauguration of the first subway line in London would establish new paradigms for quality in public transport.

The London Underground was an adaptation of the familiar urban railway. However, by segregating the system in unique ways, underground, the subway reached unprecedented efficiency in speed and passenger volume, freeing the surface for individual transport or pedestrians.

After London, Paris inaugurated its Métropolitain in 1900.

New York officially opened its first underground subway line in 1904, but already had elevated urban lines three decades prior.[3]

In Portugal, the Lisbon Metro was inaugurated on December 29, 1959.

In Brazil, the first underground line, starting the São Paulo Metro, was inaugurated in 1974.

With the popularization of the automobile in the early twentieth century, the bus would return as an alternative for public transport. Initially, buses were based on the structure of trucks, with a body adapted to carry passengers.

Later, the bus gained its own personality, acquiring technological sophistication and conquering its own space in the world of transport.

Currently, the bus is the dominant mode of transportation in virtually all Brazilian cities, even those equipped with metro systems.

Due to the high cost of implementing rail transport and the bureaucracy of public management, this situation is not expected to change in the short term.

Methods

Bus or Coach

Crystal Clear app xmag.png Main article: Bus
Buses in Kyoto, Japan.

Buses (autocarros in Portugal) are practical and efficient for short and medium distances and are often the means of transport used in public transport, as they are an economical option. The biggest advantage of buses is their flexibility. Transportation companies seek to establish routes based on the approximate number of passengers in the area. Once the route is established, bus stops (paragens in Portugal) are constructed along the route.

However, due to their low passenger capacity, buses are not efficient on routes with high usage. Buses on heavily used routes cause a lot of pollution due to the increased number of buses needed for efficient passenger transport. In this case, the replacement of the bus line with a tram or subway line is considered.

To increase system capacity, many cities are constructing dedicated road space for bus systems known as Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), which was first implemented in Curitiba, Brazil. In the last decade, BRT has been built in other cities such as São Paulo (Expresso Tiradentes), Santiago, Chile (Transantiago), and American cities like Los Angeles and Las Vegas.

Electrical

Crystal Clear app xmag.png Main article: Tram
A tram stop (paragem de eléctrico in Portugal) in Cairo, Egypt.

Trams (eléctricos in Portugal) are vehicles that move on tracks built into the ground and are powered by electricity via overhead lines installed along the route. Trams can transport more passengers than a standard bus and do not directly pollute the environment.

However, due to their lack of lateral mobility, trams can cause traffic problems on busy streets, especially because the tram line is usually installed in the center of the street. When passenger movement occurs in a public area where the tram stops at stops similar to bus stops (instead of a separate platform), all following vehicles are forced to stop until passenger movement in and out of the tram is complete. To solve this problem, the construction of a dedicated road exclusively for trams can be considered.

Trams are also more expensive to maintain because of the constant upkeep required for the overhead lines. Currently, few cities, like Toronto and San Francisco, use trams on a large scale for efficient passenger transport. Tram lines in various cities, such as San Francisco, Lisbon, Campos do Jordão, and Santos, act as tourist attractions.

Metro

Crystal Clear app xmag.png Main article: Metro
View of the Montreal subway.

The metro (metro or subway in Portugal) is used when trams or buses do not efficiently meet passenger demand on certain city routes. This occurs when passengers need to travel long distances or when bus and tram routes are frequently congested.

The subway is powered by electricity and runs entirely in spaces separate from public access, such as streets, roads, railways, and parks. The metro can run in tunnels beneath the ground, on land (almost always separated from other areas by fencing), or in the air, suspended by pillars. Passengers board at stations built along the subway line.

The subway is a means of transport with minimal ecological/environmental costs, ideal for mass passenger transportation. However, its maintenance is very expensive and is economically viable only on high-density routes. Moreover, unlike the bus, subway routes need to be carefully planned.

Station in Valby, Denmark.

Train

Crystal Clear app xmag.png Main article: Train

The train (comboio in Portugal) is a type of inter-urban public transport, mostly used for mass passenger transit, covering a route between two distant points, and is usually a national responsibility.

Sometimes, trains are a regional responsibility when used for passenger transport within a large city or between cities located close to each other. Generally, passengers using inter-city trains are not granted the right to transfer to other modes of public transport within a given town without paying the full fare.

Ferry

Ferry Ghisallo in Varenna, Lago di Como, Italy.
Crystal Clear app xmag.png Main article: Ferry

Ferries (also known as balsas) connect two points separated by a body of water that lack bridge and/or tunnel access, or where such connections are far removed from certain public routes. In Brazil, for example, ferries are widely used between Santos and Guarujá. In Portugal, the “Cacilheiros” and catamaran links from Almada, Trafaria, Barreiro, and Lisbon via Transtejo are well-known.

Other Types of Public Transport

  • Aircraft: Used by people who need to travel long distances or to isolated areas.
  • Elevators: Provide vertical movement of people in buildings and towers.
  • Escalators and Moving Walkways: Move people short distances.
  • Helicopters: Used by people who wish to avoid city traffic. Common in New York and São Paulo.
  • School Buses: Used for transporting students from their homes to their schools.
  • Inter-urban Buses: Used for moving people between two different cities.
  • Taxis: Used by people who prefer comfort and speed, or when other public transport in a given region is nonexistent.

Operation as a Whole

A bus stop in the Anchieta neighborhood, Belo Horizonte.

When planning a public transport system, its efficiency must be considered, allowing users to take the fewest possible routes and/or the shortest possible distance. The system must also be economically viable for its users.

User Fare Collection

  • Free: No charges for users.
  • Unlimited Use Card: Users purchase a card with their picture and identity, allowing unlimited system use for a certain period. The card needs to be checked by the driver or station collector.
  • Pre-paid: Users use a card that may need to be loaded at a licensed station. When using the card, the fare is charged automatically.
  • Tickets or Tokens: Can be purchased in advance.
  • Discounted Tickets or Vouchers: For certain users, such as the elderly and students.
  • By Distance: Charges based on the distance traveled, used in most cities in Japan.
  • Passes: Documents identifying the holder and permitting the use of certain public transport routes or within a pre-established area by paying certain sums for specific time periods (monthly, for example).

Some users, such as preschool children, often travel free of charge.

System Types

  • Free: No charges for users.
  • Fully Integrated Transport: A one-time fee is paid at the entrance, and the user gets connections between different routes without paying an extra fee. Used in most European cities, all Canadian cities, most American cities, and Curitiba.
  • Integrated Transport: A one-time fee is paid at the entrance; passengers must disembark at designated central terminals to take another route, otherwise, they pay an extra fee. Used in most cities in Paraná and the Rede Metropolitana de Goiânia.
  • Single Terminal: All lines depart from a single terminal, such as in Anápolis, Goiás.
  • By Distance: Charges based on the distance traveled. Used in most cities in Japan.
  • Semi-Integrated Transport: Passengers can transfer for free at the central terminal to routes within the same transport company but must pay a fee to use routes from other companies. São Paulo is an example; passengers taking the subway must pay a fee to use bus routes, and vice versa.
  • Non-integrated: Passengers must pay a new fee for each connection. Common in small towns and several American cities.
  • Petrópolis, RJ: Currently uses both integrated and non-integrated systems. The integrated system has six integration terminals where passengers can travel between points by paying a single fare using the rechargeable Setranscard. This system allows for greater flexibility and lower ticket costs for daily commutes between home and work.

Economic Maintenance

Companies that manage urban public transport systems are almost never self-sufficient; income from fares and advertising is not enough to cover staff salaries and equipment maintenance. The São Paulo Metro, for example, had a loss of about $350 million in fiscal year 2003. In North America, the most cost-efficient company is the Toronto Transit Commission (TTC), generating 81% (as of 2004) of the revenue needed for self-support.

The remaining revenue needed to maintain urban public transport systems must be heavily subsidized by municipal (or government) funds, which can be costly and often causes public debate.

Illegal Public Transport

Many underdeveloped countries face the problem of illegal public transport.

In cities like Seville, Calcutta, and Ciudad del Este, many people, to sustain themselves, charge a fixed fee to illegally transport people in unregistered vehicles (vans and trucks are the most common), posing a challenge to official national transport systems. This causes significant economic losses for registered public transport companies operating in the city. This type of transport also endangers passengers’ lives through the use of uninspected vehicles, sometimes with mechanical problems, or driven by unlicensed drivers.

In the Amazon, Indonesia, and mainland China, unregistered passenger vessels are often overcrowded on rivers and seas, endangering passengers’ lives. Another problem in several countries in Africa, Latin America, and Asia is inter-urban transport companies that do not properly register their vehicles.

Despite being illegal, this type of service is often used by the general population for two reasons:

  • Lack of adequate public transport in the region, especially in isolated regions such as tropical forests.
  • Even when legal public transport is available, many people still use illegal methods because they are often cheaper.

Economic Impact

Development generated since 1985, when the Alewife station opened in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Many cities find that new public transport systems have substantial economic benefits, leading to regional economic and social development and increasing land values. Fixed and well-planned public transport systems, such as railways, seem to have a greater impact, perhaps because their construction represents a long-term goal to provide transportation to specific locations. An efficient and well-planned public transport system maximizes the economic and environmental benefits of investment by encouraging further development within a certain radius of the stations.

Translating the economic impact into a source of income for public transport systems has been a dream of many urban planners. Few localities have the ability to transfer development rights to a private urban public transport operator, as Hong Kong has done. Hong Kong’s success illustrates this idea’s potential.

Others argue that public transport is impractical due to its high costs and inefficiency. They contend that the costs of constructing and maintaining a mile of subway or light rail often equal or exceed the costs of constructing and maintaining kilometers of urban freeways, even though they do not handle the same number of vehicles—although public transport proponents dispute this. Furthermore, they argue that public transport projects often do not include long-term operating costs, which are generally not covered by passenger fares. For thirty years, public transport unions have held strikes, effectively holding urban populations hostage until their demands are met. However, due to growing car congestion, public transport usage in the United States increased by 21%—more than the increase in vehicle kilometers traveled during the same period, excluding passenger kilometers on airlines. Several U.S. states previously focused only on highways, such as Colorado and Utah, invested more in their public transportation systems in 2005.

Social Problems

Critics of public transport often claim that it attracts “undesirable elements,” citing stories of criminals targeting passengers and homeless people sleeping on trains. On some occasions, passengers have reacted by taking the law into their own hands, as in the famous 1984 case of vigilante Bernhard Goetz.

Despite these incidents, most public transport systems are well-guarded and generally have low crime rates. Most operators have developed methods for discouraging people from using their facilities as shelter. Public transportation systems are used by people of all social classes, and new systems positively impact land and property values near stations. The Hong Kong subway system raises part of its funds through property development near its stations. Much of the public opposition to new public transport projects stems from concerns about the impact on neighborhoods due to the new economic development caused by the opening of these systems.

In contrast, car accidents cause about one million deaths worldwide. In 2003, the United States registered 42,643 deaths, three times the number of murders (14,408). More than nine out of ten people in the United States or Canada commute to work by car.

Food and Drink in Public Transport

Some public transit systems prohibit food and/or drinks within their facilities and vehicles. Rules tend to be stricter on trams, subways, and buses than on long-distance inter-urban trains. In fact, inter-urban trains sometimes sell food and drinks on board or even have a buffet car or restaurant. Food and beverages brought from outside are generally allowed, except in designated cars.

Shelter in Public Transport

Bus station with seats designed to prevent homeless people from sleeping on them.

In an era where long-distance travel took several days, suitable sleeping accommodations were an essential part of public transport. Currently, most airlines and long-distance trains offer reclining seats, and many provide pillows and blankets for overnight travelers. Services with better sleeping facilities are commonly offered at an extra cost (e.g., first-class service on many international airlines) and include sleeper cars on overnight trains, larger private cabins on ships, and lie-flat seats on airplanes. Some tourists even use night trains or buses to avoid paying for a hotel.

The ability to sleep on the way to work is attractive to many public transport users. Some inter-city train systems offer “quiet cars” where loud conversations and cell phones are prohibited.

Occasionally, a local public transport route operating late at night and accepting low-cost multi-purpose passes gains a reputation as a “mobile hotel” for people with limited funds. Most public transportation systems, however, actively discourage this, even for the poorest individuals, including the homeless. One example is the Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority’s bus route 22, nicknamed Hotel 22, running between Palo Alto and San Jose. A 24-hour pass costs four dollars, and a monthly pass costs $45, much less than a hotel room or apartment.

Another example is the inter-urban train services operated by CityRail in Sydney, Australia. Relatively comfortable trains operate between Sydney and Lithgow or Newcastle overnight, with journeys lasting about two and a half hours. Elderly, disabled, and single parents are entitled to a …