US Civil War & European Liberalism: 19th Century
The Problem of Slavery and the US Civil War
The Problem of Slavery and the Civil War: The Constitution of the United States left the issue of slavery to each individual state. The states of the North and West had abolished slavery, while the South maintained it because it was the foundation of their cotton and tobacco plantations. The conflict between abolitionist and slave states intensified in the mid-19th century. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln, who opposed the expansion of slavery into new territories, was elected President. Shortly after, eleven Southern states seceded and formed the Confederacy. President Lincoln and Congress maintained that no state had the right to secede and proposed submission by force. The Civil War lasted almost four years and ended with the North’s victory. It was the most destructive war up to that point, as modern weapons were used for the first time.
Reconstruction
The post-war period, known as Reconstruction, was a time of great economic prosperity. The U.S. then began an unstoppable economic development, becoming the world’s leading industrial nation in the early 20th century. Slavery was abolished after the war. However, upon the withdrawal of the Northern army, Southern states abolished laws favoring the Black population. In political life, organization began around two parties, Republicans and Democrats, which continues to this day.
Liberalism and Authoritarianism in Europe
After the revolutions of the first half of the 19th century, the political situation of European states was very varied. While Britain and France moved slowly toward democracy, other states maintained authoritarian political systems.
Consolidation of Liberalism in Britain and France
In Britain and France, progress towards democracy was slow. Universal male suffrage was adopted, religious freedom and freedom of expression were developed, and modern political parties emerged. Granting the vote to all men provoked major changes in politics. For one, socialist parties began to have parliamentary representation because workers could vote. Additionally, parties began to develop modern political strategies, as they now needed their message to reach the entire population, not just a small elite. However, it cannot yet be said that these countries had genuine democracy for two reasons:
- Firstly, women still lacked many rights, including the right to vote, and were legally subject to men. Because of this, in the second half of the 19th century, women’s associations emerged, fighting to improve their situation. These are known as the suffragist movement because suffrage, or the vote, was their main demand.
- Secondly, another factor that prevented the full development of democracy was the widespread practice of electoral manipulation by the powerful to control election results.
The progress of democracy was accompanied by measures to protect the most disadvantaged, laying the foundation for the welfare state. Thus, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the first unemployment benefits and retirement pensions were created.
Persistence of Authoritarian Political Systems
In other countries, there was little progress in liberalism.
- In Russia, the Tsar maintained strict absolutism, and serfdom existed until 1861. The nobility, the Orthodox Church, and army officers monopolized positions of power. The economy remained agricultural, and industrialization was very limited.
- In Germany, after unification, a system that was not completely liberal was created. A constitution was adopted, establishing a parliament elected by universal male suffrage, but it could not challenge the decisions of the Emperor and the Prime Minister. However, a very advanced social policy was developed.
- In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, during the 19th century, the Emperor continued to control all power, supported by the Catholic Church, the aristocracy, and the army. However, at the beginning of the 20th century, the empire began opening up to liberalism, and universal male suffrage was recognized in 1906.