US Foreign Policy: Influences and Key Actors
Characteristics of Public Discourse on Immigration
Brader’s reading highlights three key characteristics of the public discourse on immigration in America:
- Emphasis on costs and benefits: Group images trigger emotional reactions, influencing attitudes and behavior.
- Ethnic identity cues: Images of Hispanic immigrants, for example, may signal more than ethnicity.
- Portrayal of immigrants as low- or high-skilled workers: The popular image of immigrants is often based on the stereotype of low-skilled Hispanic laborers.
The authors aim to isolate the effect of ethnic cues and examine the psychological mechanisms underlying group cues in immigration discourse.
George Washington’s Farewell Address: Main Points
George Washington emphasized the dangers of foreign influence, advocating for:
- Minimal political connection with foreign nations while extending commercial relations.
- Avoiding permanent alliances.
- Maintaining neutrality.
Sapolsky on Nationalism
Sapolsky explores the biological and psychological underpinnings of nationalism, examining how identities shift and how unconscious biases influence intergroup relations. He highlights the complexities of human behavior, where tendencies towards both conflict and cooperation coexist.
Brewer: International Trust
Brewer et al. (2004) argue that citizens’ opinions on world affairs are partly based on “international trust”—a generalized belief about how much their nation can trust other nations. This trust influences perceptions of specific nations, support for internationalism or isolationism, and foreign interventions.
Daalder: NSA Accountability
The public emergence of the National Security Advisor (NSA) has led to demands for increased accountability, particularly from Congress. However, proposals for NSA confirmation have been rejected due to concerns about:
- Diversion from core duties.
- Compromising the ability to provide advice.
- Negative impact on policy formation.
Almond-Lippmann Consensus
Kertzer & Zeitzoff (2017) challenge the Almond-Lippmann consensus, a pessimistic view that public opinion on foreign policy is ill-informed, emotional, and therefore useless. They propose a bottom-up theory, using the 2004 Israel-Hamas conflict as an example of divided public opinion.
Interest Groups
An interest group is an organization of people sharing a common interest, working together to influence public policy without seeking political control. Interest groups vary greatly in size, aims, and tactics.
Neoliberals, Constructivists, and US Foreign Policy
- Neoliberals: Believe labor and business should strongly influence US Foreign Policy.
- Constructivists: Argue that technocrats (epistemic communities) advise government officials, identifying US foreign policy objectives and interests, minimizing the impact of business and labor.
Median Voter Theory and Public Opinion
The median voter theory suggests that politicians adjust their foreign policy stances closer to the median voter’s opinion during elections, then revert to their initial positions after being elected. Jacobs & Benjamin’s research indicates:
- Business preferences are the strongest predictor, especially on Administration officials.
- Expert preferences are the second strongest, influencing all policymakers.
- Public opinion may be irrelevant.
- Labor leaders have weak influence, mainly on the legislative branch.
This suggests that elites (wealthy and educated) often drive foreign policy, potentially leading to populism.
Lindsay: Congress-Executive Branch Relations in Foreign Policy
The relationship between Congress and the Executive Branch on foreign policy has fluctuated throughout American history. The Constitution grants powers to both, leading to tensions. Factors influencing this dynamic include:
- Perceived national security threats (presidency gains relevance in times of threat).
- Success of the president’s policies.
- Control of Congress by the president’s political party.
The Israel Lobby
Israel receives substantial US aid and political support. Critics argue that this unconditional support is due to the influence of AIPAC (American Israel Public Affairs Committee), a powerful lobby acting as a de facto agent for a foreign government. AIPAC’s strategy includes:
- Pressuring Congress and the Executive branch.
- Shaping public discourse to portray Israel positively.
- Influencing media, think tanks, and academia.
Arguments for supporting Israel include:
- Strategic values: US terrorism problem, Rogue States and loyalty.
- Moral arguments: Israel is surrounded by enemies, protect the only democracy in the region, history, and Israel has sought peace when they have been provoked.