USSR Formation, NEP, and Stalin’s Rise to Power
Formation of the USSR
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) became a federal state governed by the 1924 constitution. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) was identified as the ruling party. The Congress of Soviets served as the supreme state organ with legislative power. The government was headed by a president with executive power.
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
Lenin described the NEP as “a bad storm that would have to overcome as quickly as possible… a step back to take two forward.” Introduced in March 1921, the NEP brought significant changes:
- Agriculture: Farmers could freely produce and sell their goods, and trade was permitted. Collectivization was halted.
- Companies: Private companies with fewer than 10 workers were allowed.
- Inheritance was permitted.
- Forced labor was replaced with salaries.
- Piecework was allowed.
- The state retained control of heavy industry, transport, and banking.
The civil war and war communism had devastated the economy, leading to widespread shortages in cities. Peasant uprisings and unrest among sailors indicated growing dissatisfaction. Lenin initiated economic reforms to improve living conditions, resulting in the New Economic Policy (NEP). This policy reversed some previous decisions and reintroduced elements of private property, establishing a mixed economy.
By 1926, the Soviet economy had surpassed pre-World War I levels. However, the return to market mechanisms led to rising prices and disparities between agricultural and industrial prices, causing procurement problems in cities. Private benefits and wealthy peasants (kulaks) regained some prominence. The NEP sparked debate within the Communist Party, with some advocating for rapid socialization of property while others defended the mixed economy.
The Struggle for Power After Lenin
Following Lenin’s death in 1924, a power vacuum emerged, leading to a struggle among Bolshevik leaders. This “Great Debate,” spanning from 1924 to 1928, centered on the leadership of the party, control of the Soviet state, and the direction of the revolution. The debate polarized around Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin.
Trotsky and his allies represented the more radical wing, advocating for abandoning the NEP, promoting collectivization, extending the revolution to Europe (permanent revolution), and fostering a more democratic party. Stalin, representing more conservative positions, proposed continuing with a mixed economy, building socialism in one country, and suppressing internal party debate. Stalin skillfully maneuvered to seize power, establishing an authoritarian regime and ultimately becoming a dictator. Once in power, Stalin eliminated his opponents through banishment or execution after show trials.
Stalin’s Consolidation of Power
The Stalinist system imposed the absolute primacy of communist ideology within the state and society. The Communist Party became a monolithic entity, demanding submission from all members and suppressing debate. Stalin exerted a personal dictatorship, supported by the Communist Party, and persecuted, imprisoned, or killed anyone who opposed or threatened him. He utilized the bureaucracy to create a new privileged class: the nomenklatura.
The nomenklatura, including economic planners, managers, agricultural cooperative leaders, architects, and party leaders, enjoyed privileges such as housing and automobiles unavailable to the majority of the population. This system fostered patronage within the CPSU, contributing to corruption. A personality cult of Stalin was cultivated, portraying him as a revered leader and benefactor of the USSR. Rigid censorship was imposed, and socialist realism became the official art form, praising work and solidarity under the communist regime while banning avant-garde art.