Utilitarianism: Happiness, Ethics, and Society
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a theory linking knowledge, sociology, and ethics, advocating for happiness through usefulness. Bentham defined ethical art as directing actions to produce happiness for the public. Historically, it has inspired political and social ideologies.
Utilitarian Ethics
Utilitarian ethics posits that good is happiness derived from usefulness. It is teleological, as its purpose is human happiness achieved through useful actions. Human actions aim for happiness, requiring utility and freedom as essential instruments.
- Consequentialist Ethics: Goodness is measured by the consequences of actions.
- Hedonism: Happiness is based on pleasure.
- Constructivist Ethics: It is built on rational principles of utility.
- Reductionist: The only good is what is useful.
- Pleasure as Well-being: Ethics followed by all.
Utilitarian Principles
- Of the acts: Seek the greatest pleasure or happiness, analyzing each particular circumstance. Every action has a judicial value based on its consequences.
- Of the rules: Universalize criteria for “maximum pleasure for the maximum number.” Good or bad is judged by the consequences, making it universal.
Human Dignity and Utilitarianism
- Human dignity is fundamental; as Mill stated, a dissatisfied human is better than a satisfied pig.
- Individuals have the right to self-determination, change opinions, and express individuality without societal pressure limiting their freedom.
- Two elements are necessary for happiness: personal well-being and avoiding oppression or degradation of others based on prejudice or intellect.
- Selfishness tends towards benevolence; actions should not harm others.
- Universal values: Actions should not harm others. Loyalty must adhere to commonly accepted rules.
Freedom
- Limits of Freedom: Issues affecting only the individual are decided by the individual; those affecting society are decided by society. Mill accepts the social contract where society precedes individuals and requires sanctions and persuasion.
- Types of Sanctions: Issues affecting only the individual warrant reprobation, not social sanctions. Issues affecting society warrant punishment, both individual and collective. Society should not limit freedom when it doesn’t affect others.
Freedom of opinion and expression have social utility, facilitating development and progress, thus increasing societal welfare. Freedom is always positive. If an opinion is false, silencing it prevents the acceptance of errors and the correction of mistakes through discussion and experience. Criticism should always be accepted. If an opinion holds some truth, opposing views can help recognize it. Even true opinions need open debate to be understood rationally; otherwise, beliefs weaken.
Bentham and Mill: Mill’s utilitarianism is altruistic, focusing on happiness for the maximum number of people, differentiating between higher (spiritual) and lower (physical) pleasures. Bentham’s utilitarianism is individualistic, focusing on pleasure. Higher faculties are more important than lower ones and should be developed. Justice is determined by usefulness and positive consequences, based on empiricism, opposing a priori ethics, supported by Hume and Epicurus.
Nietzsche: Nietzsche criticized classical Greek tragedy’s two aspects (Dionysian and Apollonian) and viewed Plato and Socrates as enemies of life for prioritizing truth and abstract ideas. Nietzsche’s philosophy includes the “death of God,” leading to the creation of new values within real life. The Superman creates new values, overcoming nihilism (active and passive). The will to power is essential, rejecting equality and embracing inequality. The theory of eternal return emphasizes living each moment as if it will be repeated infinitely, promoting change and evolution. Transvaluation of values involves rejecting outdated moral and scientific values in favor of life-affirming ones. Nietzsche criticized Judeo-Christian morality for being unnatural and detracting from earthly life.