Verbal Periphrasis and Coordination in Syntax
Verbal Periphrasis
Concept
Verbal periphrasis refers to the combination of an auxiliary verb with an infinitive, gerund, or participle. The auxiliary verb carries the verb endings but lacks independent meaning. The derivative verb (infinitive, gerund, or participle) contributes the semantic meaning and syntactic combinatorics. For example, in “The gardener tends to prune fruit trees,” the auxiliary verb is “tends” (not independent: *”The gardener often”). The infinitive “prune” selects the direct object (we don’t say *”mow the grass” or *”prune an iron”).
Identification
Some verb-derivative combinations are periphrases (e.g., “usually prune fruit trees”), while others are not (e.g., “He tries to prune fruit trees”). A key distinction is that the verb and derivative in a periphrasis form a functional unit. The derivative is not replaceable by other segments (*”often trims fruit”), cannot be substituted by a pronoun (*”does so often”), and cannot have a subject different from the auxiliary’s (*”Armando, I used to talk about you”).
Types of Periphrasis
Periphrases can be categorized by the derivative verb (infinitive, gerund, or participle) or by their meaning:
- Intonation Periphrasis (end of action): stop + infinitive, reach + infinitive (e.g., “I miss singing”)
- Inchoative Periphrasis (beginning of action): ir a + infinitive, start + infinitive, begin + infinitive, burst out + infinitive, put a + infinitive (e.g., “start walking,” “get to paint”)
- Iterative Periphrasis (repeated action): soler + infinitive, again + infinitive (e.g., “usually screaming”)
- Durative Periphrasis (action in progress): go + gerund, ir + gerund, lead + gerund, estar + gerund (e.g., “going to tell lies”)
- Obligatory Periphrasis (requirement): have to + infinitive, duty + infinitive, must + infinitive (e.g., “must study a little more”)
- Possibility/Likelihood Periphrasis: power + infinitive, should + infinitive (e.g., “should be 6”)
- Approximate Periphrasis: come to + infinitive, come + gerund (e.g., “come to measure the same”)
Coordination and Connectors
Concept of Coordination
Coordination is a syntactic relationship between two or more terms that perform the same function. Coordinated segments must belong to the same functional class and have the same syntactic function.
Conjunctions and Semantic Connectors
Coordinating conjunctions are formal links that indicate coordination (e.g., “and,” “or,” “but”). Semantic connectors (e.g., “also,” “however,” “nevertheless,” “consequently,” “so”) are not conjunctions but specify content and nuances within the coordination (e.g., “There was little point; however, that day arrived on time”).
Conjunctions:
- Join homogeneous segments
- Lack mobility
- Simple form, usually unstressed
- Not compatible with other connectors
- Not lead-ins, do not appear between pauses
Semantic Connectors:
- Link not necessarily homogeneous segments
- Have some mobility
- Stressed, sometimes complex
- Can coexist with conjunctions
- Some can be lead-ins, appear between pauses
Juxtaposed Coordination
Coordination without conjunctions or connectors is called parataxis or juxtaposition. It’s an open coordination where each segment performs its function independently.
Copulative Coordination
This is the most common type, using “and” and “nor.” “And” can replace “or” before words starting with /i/. It can mark repetition for emphasis (e.g., “And I said, and I repeated it, and he ignored me”). “Nor” presupposes denial in the first segment (e.g., “Do not know Ramon, nor my boyfriend, nor his sister”).
Bimembres Copular Coordination
These structures have two terms linked with comparative equality (e.g., “both…and,” “as…as,” “the same…as”): “Attended both young and old,” “As the book, reviewed the CD.”
Disjunctive Coordination
These use “or” (or “nor” before /o/). They can have two or more members. The conjunction usually appears between the last two terms (e.g., “Can come with a brother, a relative, or a friend”). With two terms, the meaning is exclusive (e.g., “Either come or stay”). “Or” can also indicate approximation (e.g., “one brown or reddish”), equivalence (e.g., “the almanac or calendar”), or explanation (e.g., “George, or rather, my neighbor”).
Distributive Coordinations
These use correlations of adverbial segments (e.g., “either…or,” “whether…or”): “I can get it at home or in the office.” They create a distributive sense (e.g., “a few…here…there,” “before…now,” “yesterday…today”). They are coordinated by juxtaposition and can include a conjunction (e.g., “one up and one down”).
Coordinations (II)
Adversative Coordination
These structures present opposition or exclusion in the second segment. There are two types: restrictive (e.g., “but”) and corrective (e.g., “but rather”).
Restrictive Adversative
The second segment denies what the first implies (e.g., “Luis is tall, but not playing basketball”). Connectors like “however,” “nevertheless,” “yet” convey the same relationship. When these connectors are used without a conjunction, the segments are coordinated by juxtaposition.
Corrective Adversative
These structures refute an opinion and provide a correction (e.g., “A: Pepe’s smart. B: Pepe is not intelligent, but rather astute”). They are bimembres, involve a denial and correction, and can apply to noun phrases, adjectives, and adverbs. Discourse markers can emphasize the correction.
Subordination and Subordinate Clauses
Subordination
Subordination occurs when one function (subordinate) depends on another (nuclear or core). For example, direct objects, indirect objects, and complements are subordinate to the predicate. A subordinate clause is a clause that plays a subordinate role (e.g., “knows that parents arrived”).
Functions and Categories
Not every category can perform every syntactic function. For example, subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, and complements can be noun phrases; attributes can be noun phrases or adjective phrases; adverbial complements can be prepositional phrases or adverbs; and noun complements can be adjectives or epithets.
Subordinate Clauses and Transposition
When a phrase performs a function not typical of its category, it undergoes transposition. There are three types of subordinate clauses:
- Noun/Substantive Clauses: Perform functions like subject, direct object, indirect object, complement (e.g., “knows that parents arrived”)
- Adjective/Adjectival Clauses: Function as adjectives (noun complements) (e.g., “the car that I like”)
- Adverbial Clauses: Act as adverbs (e.g., “when he arrived”)
Noun Clauses
Noun clauses consist of a transposer (usually a conjunction) and a base clause (a verb phrase). They function as noun phrases.
Substantivized Conjunction with “That”
The conjunction “that” converts sentences into noun phrases, enabling them to function as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, complements, etc. (e.g., “Pepe says that the vaccine is effective”).
Noun Clauses with “If”
The conjunction “if” introduces uncertainty or interrogation, primarily as direct objects but also in other nominal functions (e.g., “Not known whether these holidays come”).
Indirect Interrogatives and Exclamatives
These are noun clauses introduced by interrogative or exclamatory words (e.g., “who,” “what,” “when,” “where,” “how,” “why”). They can function as subjects, direct objects, etc. (e.g., “He didn’t tell me where he was going”).
Relative Clauses
Relative clauses function as adjectives, referring to a preceding noun phrase (the antecedent) (e.g., “The car that you bought”). They can be introduced by relative pronouns like “who,” “whom,” “which,” “that,” “whose,” “where,” “when,” and “how.” Headless relative clauses lack an explicit antecedent (e.g., “Who knows what is honest”).
Comparative Sentences
Comparative sentences compare two quantities in terms of quantity, quality, or manner. There are two types: comparative proper (e.g., “It is warmer than yesterday”) and comparative relative (e.g., “Knows less than it appears”). They can express superiority (e.g., “more”), inferiority (e.g., “less”), or equality (e.g., “as,” “like”).
Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial clauses function as adverbs, modifying the verb in the main clause. They can express place (e.g., “where he was born”), time (e.g., “when he arrived”), manner (e.g., “as I said”), cause (e.g., “because I have to study”), result (e.g., “so that the river was flooded”), condition (e.g., “if I win the lottery”), or concession (e.g., “although I love the sea”).