Victorian Era & Imperialism: Global Power Shifts
Victorian England & Global Power
Parliamentary Stability and Reforms
Victorian England thrived under a stable parliamentary monarchy with a two-party system. The Whig and Tory parties, by 1837, evolved into the Liberal and Conservative parties. The UK was considered a model liberal state. Queen Victoria’s reign began in 1837. Timid sociopolitical reforms initiated by the Conservatives in 1868 were continued by the Liberals. The Reform Acts of 1867, 1884, and 1885 progressively expanded suffrage, culminating in universal male suffrage.
The Irish Question
British occupation of Ireland fueled anti-British sentiment. By 1910, tensions between Protestant and Catholic communities escalated significantly.
Economic Power and Free Trade
The UK championed free trade, benefiting its industry. However, it began losing competitiveness to emerging powers like Germany and the United States. Despite this, the UK remained a global financial center, maintaining its international supremacy.
Germany’s Rise
Bismarck and Economic Growth
Under Bismarck and Wilhelm II, Germany experienced rapid economic development led by Prussia. The German Empire, a federal state in theory, was established by the 1871 Constitution, which unified legislation under Prussian hegemony and guaranteed universal male suffrage. Despite the federal structure, the monarchy maintained a strong authoritarian and centralist character. Bismarck countered the growing strength of the Social Democratic Party, representing the working class, with interventionist social policies.
Wilhelm II’s Ambitions
Wilhelm II pursued an aggressive policy, aiming to establish Germany as a major world power with a colonial empire. This raised suspicions in the United Kingdom, particularly regarding Germany’s naval expansion, which triggered a British arms race. Colonial policies further exacerbated tensions, culminating in the formation of the Triple Entente (UK, France, and Russia) in 1907, signaling the failure of German imperial diplomacy.
Habsburg and Russian Empires
Habsburg Dual Monarchy
Under Francis Joseph, the Austro-Hungarian Empire adopted a dual monarchy structure while retaining its absolutist character. Despite a stagnant economy in need of modernization, the empire experienced a cultural golden age. Its foreign policy remained conciliatory until 1914, when it declared war on Serbia following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife.
Russian Empire’s Challenges
The vast Russian Empire, under Tsar Nicholas II, faced challenges related to its geographical complexity and large population. Despite being the most populous state, it struggled with terrestrial communications. The absolute and theocratic monarchy suppressed political freedoms, leading to unrest. While Alexander I had decreed the liberation of serfs, Russia remained largely feudal. Industrialization was weak, relying heavily on foreign capital, primarily from France, invested in railways, coal, iron, and oil extraction. Industry concentrated in a few European cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow.
Colonization and its Impact
The Scramble for Africa
Private initiatives often preceded state actions in colonization, creating a fait accompli. Scientific explorations, missionary work, and business ventures paved the way for colonial expansion. Military occupation facilitated economic and political exploitation, forming the basis of colonial empires.
- West Coast: Primarily trading posts, often involved in the slave trade.
- Mediterranean Coast: France established a settler colony in Algeria, expanding into Tunisia and Morocco. The opening of the Suez Canal intensified colonization efforts.
- Southern Africa: The discovery of diamonds and gold spurred British interests, leading to tensions by 1880.
The Berlin Conference of 1885, convened by Bismarck, aimed to regulate colonization and prevent conflict. It established free navigation on the Niger and Congo rivers, free trade in Central Africa, the creation of the Congo Free State, and the principle of effective occupation as a requirement for sovereignty.
Expansion in Asia
Many Asian countries possessed strong political organizations, enabling them to resist colonial powers. The Suez Canal’s opening intensified colonization efforts. The British East India Company dominated India.
European Colonial Empires
British Empire
By 1830, the British Empire consisted mainly of coastal and island territories, facilitating control of Atlantic and Mediterranean trade routes. Under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, colonial activity intensified, focusing on India and expanding into Sudan and Kenya, aiming to create a continuous empire from north to south.
French Empire
France colonized vast areas in Africa and Asia, including Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and parts of Congo. It participated in the Suez Canal’s construction. Jules Ferry spearheaded French colonial policy, which was more centralized than the British administration.
German Empire
Driven by Wilhelm II’s aggressive policies, Germany acquired Namibia, Tanganyika, Togo, Cameroon, and Pacific islands following the Berlin Conference.
Consequences of Imperialism
: profoundly transformed indigenous societies and provoked contrary reactions. -The division led to the creation of colonial boundaries were changed artificials.-structure-social.es The fact of the language and adapt Western educational models. Caused the phenomenon of acculturation .- reduction in mortality and birth-elevada. colonies became suppliers of cheap raw materials and manufactured industrial products while consumers at metropolis.-contruir was a road infrastructure