Victorian Era: Politics, Economy, and the Irish Question
The Victorian Era: A Time of Transformation
The Victorian era, spanning from 1837 to 1901, marked the reign of Queen Victoria I. During this period, England underwent significant changes, including its greatest territorial expansion in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. It also strengthened its industrial development and maintained a parliamentary system, albeit one that was gradually shifting towards a more democratic character. Unlike many European nations, the United Kingdom was not significantly impacted by revolutionary waves, thanks to its liberal parliamentary system. Social and political developments unfolded within a framework of relative stability.
Economic Shifts and Agricultural Crisis
Economic development was hampered by the agricultural crisis that affected the country from 1873 to 1895. This crisis followed the establishment of free trade in 1846, which severely impacted the agricultural sector but favored the industrial sector. The agricultural downturn forced many farmers to abandon the countryside and move to cities or emigrate to America. By the late 19th century, only 28% of the population lived in rural areas.
From a financial perspective, England remained the world’s largest banking center, supported by a strong currency, the pound sterling, and the Bank of England, the most powerful financial institution globally. This explains the keen interest of British politicians in economic matters: imperialist expansion was closely tied to trade, finance, and control of shipping routes. Successive budget reforms ensured the primacy of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, who dominated the House of Commons, in contrast to the old aristocracy represented in the House of Lords. The former strongly supported colonial expansion.
Political Reforms and the Rise of New Parties
Political reforms were initiated in 1832 with the extension of suffrage. Political life revolved around two prominent parties: the Tories (Conservatives) and the Whigs (Liberals). Disraeli, a Conservative minister, implemented an electoral reform in 1867, considered the first with a democratic character. This reform extended voting rights to approximately one million people, primarily artisans and urban workers. Both parties supported the electoral reform because it brought the masses closer to the State, fostering identification with the throne and British government institutions.
Electoral reform strengthened the foundations of the political system: the parliamentary monarchy. However, Disraeli tied voting rights to property ownership (to vote, one needed to own a house or pay rent), thus excluding small farmers and landless rural workers.
The Liberal triumph of the Whigs in 1868, led by Gladstone, further expanded democratic reforms. Gladstone epitomized the political model of Victorian England, embodying values such as liberalism, economic expansion, Christianity, and good relations with other powers. He also championed sound fiscal policy and freedom of thought.
Key Reforms Under Gladstone
- Religious Reforms: In 1869, the separation of the Anglican Church and State was established, abolishing the requirement to belong to this church to become a teacher.
- Secular Schools: Creation of new secular schools, leading to some of the lowest illiteracy rates in the world.
- Trade Union Act: The new Trade Union Act of 1871/1875 allowed the establishment and operation of labor unions.
- Electoral Law Extension: The electoral law of 1884 increased the number of voters to five million.
By the late 19th century, a new political party emerged: the Labor Party, which eventually displaced the old Whigs. The Tories underwent a renewal in 1905, with a new faction led by Winston Churchill. Despite these changes, the United Kingdom remained a nation dominated by a wealthy elite, proud of their power.
The Irish Question
Ireland had been under British rule since the Middle Ages but remained a theoretically independent kingdom until 1800, when the Act of Union was passed, merging Ireland and Great Britain into the United Kingdom. This triggered a spiral of violence, often instigated by the Catholic clergy.
Despite Gladstone’s attempts to grant Ireland autonomy within the United Kingdom, the problems persisted. His efforts divided the Whig party between supporters and opponents of this policy. The proposed law also included giving Ireland its own parliament.
The issue remained relatively dormant until the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin, which ultimately led to the partition of the island. The predominantly Protestant North remained loyal to Britain, while the Catholic South, openly opposed to membership in the United Kingdom, finally achieved independence in the 1920s.
However, this did not resolve the conflict in Ulster, the northern region under British sovereignty. Throughout the 20th century, Ulster would witness ongoing tensions between the Protestant majority and the Catholic minority.