Victorian Era Reforms and the Second French Empire
19th Century Political and Social Changes
British Political Reforms
From the mid-nineteenth century, political life in Britain was largely controlled by two parties: the Tories (Conservatives) and Whigs (Liberals). A significant early reform was the extension of the franchise in 1832.
Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli introduced electoral reform in 1867, extending democratic voting rights to over one million citizens. However, this reform primarily connected the right to vote to property ownership.
Liberal Prime Minister William Gladstone, a key political figure of the Victorian era, implemented further democratic reforms after 1867. His values centered on liberalism, efficiency, economic expansion, evangelical Christianity, positive international relations, sound fiscal policy, and intellectual freedom. His government enacted several key reforms:
- Religious Reforms: The Anglican Church’s ties to the state were loosened, and the requirement to be Anglican to serve as a teacher was abolished.
- A new school system was created with religious freedom, contributing to a significant reduction in illiteracy rates.
- New trade union laws were enacted, along with reforms to the administration of justice.
- A further extension of suffrage in 1884 brought the total number of voters to five million.
The Irish Question
The “Irish Question” was a major issue in British domestic politics until the Irish War of Independence (1919-1921). Since the Act of Union in 1800, Ireland had been annexed by the United Kingdom, a union that many Irish people never accepted. In 1870, English landowners frequently expelled their Irish tenants.
In 1879, Charles Stewart Parnell organized a boycott movement. Diplomatic efforts by Pope Leo XIII led to the Kilmainham Treaty between British and Irish leaders, aimed at stopping the violence. Gladstone enacted the Home Rule bill, intending to grant Ireland autonomous status, but this led to the downfall of his government in 1894.
The Easter Rising of 1916 resulted in the division of the island between Catholics and Protestants. In the 1920s, the Catholic regions finally gained independence. However, the conflict has continued to the present day.
France: Second Empire to Third Republic
From 1848, France developed into a major economic and colonial power.
The Second Napoleonic Empire (1852-1870)
Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, the first president of the Second French Republic, adopted an authoritarian approach. In 1851, he introduced a new constitution that granted him full powers, and in 1852, he proclaimed himself Emperor of the French, taking the name Napoleon III. The Second Napoleonic Empire can be divided into two phases:
The Authoritarian Empire (1852-1860)
The government suppressed the opposition, imposed press censorship, controlled meetings and election campaigns, secured the support of the Catholic Church, and emphasized order and authority. Power was concentrated in the Emperor, and legitimacy was derived from the people, a concept known as Bonapartism. Ministers simply carried out the Emperor’s orders. There were three chambers: the Senate, the Legislature, and the State Council, with the latter holding the most power.
The Liberal Empire (1860-1870)
The Emperor lost support from Catholics and faced growing organized opposition, as well as a rising labor movement. This forced him to make concessions:
- Amnesty for those convicted of political offenses.
- Legislative reforms granting more power to the chambers.
- Freedom for the press to report parliamentary debates to the public.
- Education reforms to expand public education.
- Granting the right to strike, freedom of association, and permission to participate in the First International.