Victorian Era: Society, Literature, and Industrialization
Middle Classes in Victorian Society
The middle class (MC) emerged as a new social category, shifting from traditional ranks to a more fluid “class” system. This new system was characterized by economic mobility and conflict, as individuals strived for higher positions. The traditional model of society, based on paternalism and deference, was replaced by a bourgeois mentality that valued work and professional achievement. The middle class acted as a bridge between the aristocracy and the working class, though it was a fragmented group with diverse economic conditions. They were often elusive about their identity as a class, expressing themselves more as individuals. The criteria for social class were based on economic capital, cultural habits, and social status.
Challenges Faced by Industrial Novelists
Industrial novelists faced structural problems in their writing. They often pushed plots too far, resulting in a lack of realism and a tendency to oscillate between romance and melodrama. Final scenes often featured unbelievable reconciliations, and characterization was often poor. They used spirituality to express social concerns, but their attempts to depict working-class characters were often based on assumptions rather than real-life observations. The use of dialect to represent working-class speech was also a common practice.
Charles Dickens and Coketown
Charles Dickens uses Coketown as a metaphor for the modern world, contrasting it with the utopian world of Sleary’s circus. Coketown represents the negative aspects of industrialism, while Sleary’s circus embodies human warmth and affection. Dickens focuses on the ideology of industrialism, particularly the utilitarian principles of Mr. Gradgrind’s educational system, which rejects emotion and imagination in favor of facts and the ‘economic man’. Dickens’s critique of utilitarianism is evident in his portrayal of Coketown and its inhabitants.
Early Phases of Christianity
Victorian novelists were interested in the early history of Christianity, often using it to build an anti-Catholic message. They portrayed Catholics as dogmatic and violent, while Protestants were seen as champions of freedom. Charles Kingsley’s Hypatia, or Old Foes with a New Face (1853) is a prime example of this trend. However, some novels countered this narrative by depicting the heroic behavior of early Christians against the tyranny of pagan Romans, drawing parallels to the oppression of Catholics in England after the Reformation.
Fears in Sensational Fiction
Sensational fiction often featured neat resolutions, fascinating mysteries, and sentimental love stories. These novels encouraged readers to adopt a skeptical approach to truth, similar to scientific methods. However, sensational fiction also addressed fears, with crime becoming a central element in many novels. These stories often featured amateur detectives, such as doctors and lawyers, solving crimes committed by scandalous individuals.
Phrenology
Phrenology, proposed by Franz Joseph Gall, suggested that personality traits could be determined by studying the shape of the cranium. The brain was divided into multiple mini-brains, each responsible for different faculties. While these faculties were considered inherent, individuals could train themselves to improve them. Theories about the interactions between the two hemispheres of the brain were also explored.
Kingsley and Disraeli
Benjamin Disraeli and Charles Kingsley, both politicians and novelists, used literature as a tool for propaganda and didactic writing. They aimed to address social issues through their novels, but they often struggled to balance political arguments with engaging plots. To solve this, they introduced love and crime stories to articulate political conflicts. They also recognized the need for changes, conflicts, and events to keep the reader engaged.
Serialization of Novels
Serialization improved the distribution of novels, making them more accessible to a wider audience. Novels were published in monthly installments or in magazines, which also included other content. This new format led to an increase in literacy and the emergence of public libraries. Writers developed new strategies to keep readers engaged, such as creating suspense and using multi-plot structures. However, serialization also presented challenges, such as the need to create grabbing beginnings and satisfying endings. The excessive length of serialized novels was also a consequence of market requirements.
English and European Bildungsroman
The Bildungsroman focuses on human development and formation. While European Bildungsroman often favors the victory of the rational mind, English Bildungsroman presents unique features. These include early traumatic experiences, idealized childhoods, and a devaluation of youth. Final integration is perceived as the preservation of one’s identity, and maturity is seen as a rejection of romantic ambitions. These features can be interpreted as a metonymic function of the genre, where personal evolution reflects ideological orthodoxy.
Anxieties About Changes in the Modern World
The Industrial Revolution led to significant changes in the English countryside, with the ugliness and problems of industrialization becoming more visible than its benefits. Urban populations faced inadequate housing, sanitation, and irregular employment. The economic success of the Industrial Revolution was often unintentional and unplanned. The liberal approach, based on laissez-faire principles, led to the creation of schools and poor laws. The changes in the modern world introduced new mental structures, including the assimilation of living in transition and the acceptance of inevitable progress. Industrial life also caused a distancing from natural cycles, isolation, and economic instability.