Western Ethics and the Evolution of Citizenship
ITEM 10: The Homeric Poems, Virtue, and Community
1. The Birth of Western Ethics
Western ethics originated in Greece, founded on three core principles:
- The pursuit of actions that benefit the community is considered good.
- Virtue is equated with excellence and the ability to excel, granting a certain power to the virtuous.
- A good person strives for excellence, providing the best service to their community and embodying the highest ideals.
The Socratic Approach
Socrates, the pioneer of Western ethics, raised fundamental ethical questions and proposed methods and attitudes to address them. Key aspects of his philosophy include:
- Morality is a matter of attitude: the relentless pursuit of truth.
- Seeking truth requires opposing dogmatism.
- Truth resides within individuals. Reflection and dialogue are the methods to uncover it. Socrates termed this method maieutics, the art of birthing truth.
- Moral concepts discovered through this method are universally valid due to a shared human experience.
- Happiness is achieved through righteous action.
- Those who commit evil do so out of ignorance (moral intellectualism).
2.1. Three Models of Happiness
- Eudaemonism: Happiness is self-fulfillment, achieving one’s potential as a human being.
- Self-sufficiency: Happiness is being independent, not relying on anything or anyone.
- Hedonism: Happiness is experiencing pleasure and avoiding pain.
Aristotle believed that happiness is achieved by fully realizing one’s human potential. Epicurus, when asked what motivates human action, stated that it is the pursuit of happiness, which is attained through pleasure.
2.2. Happiness as Self-Fulfillment: Eudaemonism
Aristotle argued that if all human activities have a purpose, and goals are means to an ultimate end, then there must be a final end that drives all others. This ultimate goal is happiness. According to Aristotle, happiness is:
- A perfect good, sought for its own sake and not as a means to something else.
- A self-sufficient good; possessing it leaves one wanting nothing more.
- The good achieved through the exercise of the most characteristic human activity, namely, virtue.
- The good achieved through continuous activity.
Theoretical and Practical Knowledge
Each individual has a role in society and must acquire the necessary attitudes to fulfill it. Happiness is the function of a human being. Actions that are intrinsically valuable are superior to those that are merely instrumental. If there is a distinct human activity, it will be the type of action that has its end in itself. These characteristics are found in the exercise of theoretical activity, leading Aristotle to conclude that happiness consists in the exercise of such activity. However, it is impossible to maintain a contemplative life constantly; one must engage in other activities to achieve happiness. This led to the distinction between two types of virtues: intellectual and ethical. Intellectual virtues, such as wisdom, help us find the mean between deficiency and excess. A person who lives virtuously is happy, but they also need to live in a city governed by good laws, necessitating political ethics.
2.3. Happiness as Self-Sufficiency
Greek philosophers sought to understand what makes a person happy. Cynics, Stoics, and Epicureans offered the ideal of the sage, who possesses the knowledge of how to be happy. For the Cynics and Stoics, the sage is self-sufficient.
Cynics
The Cynics, whose name derives from the Greek word for “dog-like,” were characterized by their belief that happiness lies in individual freedom from social norms and institutions. They believed that humans are inherently good and that living in accordance with nature is the path to wisdom. Furthermore, they emphasized self-sufficiency as a prerequisite for happiness. The founder of Cynicism was Antisthenes.
Stoics
The Stoics also believed in living in harmony with nature. Heraclitus of Ephesus explained the order of the cosmos by suggesting that a common reason governs all things, including destiny and providence. Since humans also partake in this reason, the ideal for them is to recognize that everything is in the hands of fate and to cultivate inner peace. The Stoic sage is one who understands their emotions and harbors no illusions about the future. Stoicism is a life philosophy that emphasizes inner freedom.
2.4. Happiness as Pleasure: Hedonism
Hedonists believe that morality exists because humans seek pleasure and avoid pain. Ethics is thus subordinate to psychology. Intelligence helps us calculate the most appropriate means to achieve the greatest possible pleasure. In this view, morality is a calculating intellect.
Epicureanism
Epicureanism advocates for a well-calculated enjoyment of life. The wise person knows how to organize their life by calculating which pleasures are most intense and lasting. Wisdom has two roots: the ability to calculate pleasure and intellect. These two are the constants of hedonism. In the case of Epicureanism, it is individualistic.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism posits that human beings possess social sentiments, the satisfaction of which is a source of pleasure. Sympathy is the ability to put oneself in another’s shoes. The moral goal is to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of sentient beings. This principle of morality serves as a criterion for rational decision-making and has led to the development of welfare economics and numerous social reforms. The arithmetic of pleasure rests on two assumptions:
- Pleasure is quantifiable, and all pleasures are equal in quality.
- The pleasures of different individuals can be compared to arrive at a total maximum of pleasure.
John Stuart Mill argued that there are higher and lower pleasures. People who have experienced both tend to prefer intellectual and moral pleasures. Humans require more than animals to be happy. Mill’s utilitarianism has been described as “idealistic” because it values social feelings as a source of pleasure. There are two main forms of utilitarianism:
- Act-utilitarianism: Requires evaluating the value of each action based on its consequences.
- Rule-utilitarianism: Requires considering whether the action conforms to moral rules and evaluating the consequences of those rules.
ITEM 11: Citizenship
A Usual Definition
- Membership in a political community, a country, with permanent residence in its territory.
- The enjoyment of rights that must be protected by the city or state, including the ability to participate in the government of one’s own political community, either directly or indirectly.
Citizenship in the Greco-Roman World
In both Greece and Rome, a citizen was someone recognized as having a set of rights and duties, regardless of their economic status. The duty to defend the city by bearing arms, if necessary, was particularly emphasized.
Citizenship in Greek Democracy
In ancient Greece, each city (polis) was a small independent state striving for economic self-sufficiency. In the context of ancient Greek democracy, citizenship meant participating in politics. Citizens had the responsibility to attend the assembly and engage in discussions on public matters. These assemblies were held in the agora. Most public offices were filled by lottery. To encourage the participation of poorer citizens, various economic incentives were provided. For the Greeks of the classical period, being a citizen meant addressing public issues through deliberation and open discussion, where different viewpoints were exchanged. Three principles governed participation in the assembly:
- Isonomia: Equality before the law; every citizen had the same rights as any other.
- Isegoria: Equal right to speak; every citizen had the same right as any other to express their views before the assembly.
- Koinonia: Community cooperation to achieve the public good, prioritizing the collective good over individual interests.
Citizenship in Ancient Rome: The Legal Tradition
Citizenship in ancient Rome was the legal recognition of individuals as full members of the Republic. This meant that citizens enjoyed the legal protection granted by the laws and institutions.
Double Root of Modern Citizenship
Modern citizenship has a dual origin: the stable organization of the state with its bureaucracy and ruler, and the concept of nationality. The state consists of citizens who hold citizenship, which is a legal status signifying that a person belongs to a state recognized by international law. Two principles determine citizenship:
- Jus soli (law of the soil): Grants citizenship to anyone born within a country’s territory.
- Jus sanguinis (law of the blood): Prioritizes the nationality of the parents in determining citizenship.