Westward Expansion, Civil War & Rise of Imperialism (19th Century)
Westward Expansion
During the early 19th century, the United States expanded its territories significantly. The Louisiana Purchase from France and the acquisition of Florida from Spain were key acquisitions. The annexation of Texas in 1845 and the Oregon Treaty with Britain in the same year further expanded American territory. Following the Mexican-American War, New Mexico and California were incorporated in 1848. This westward expansion provided land and shaped the American identity. Three major regions emerged: the industrial and urban Northeast, the agrarian South, and the West, dominated by independent farmers.
The Problem of Slavery and the Civil War
The United States Constitution left the issue of slavery to individual states. Northern and Western states had abolished slavery, while the South maintained it due to its dependence on cotton and tobacco production. The conflict between abolitionists and slave states intensified in the mid-19th century. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln, who opposed the expansion of slavery, was elected president. Subsequently, eleven Southern states seceded and formed the Confederacy. The Civil War (1861-1865) resulted in a Union victory after a destructive conflict that caused immense devastation and loss of life.
Reconstruction
The Reconstruction era following the Civil War was a period of economic prosperity. The United States experienced rapid economic development, becoming a leading industrial power by the early 20th century. Slavery was abolished, but after the Northern army withdrew from the South, discriminatory laws were enacted against the Black population. During this time, the two-party political system, with Republicans and Democrats, began to take shape.
Consolidation of Liberalism in Britain and France
Britain and France adopted universal male suffrage, promoting religious freedom and freedom of expression, leading to the emergence of modern political parties. The expansion of voting rights led to significant political changes. Socialist parties gained parliamentary representation as workers gained the right to vote. Political parties developed modern strategies to reach the wider population. However, women still lacked many rights, including suffrage, and were subordinate to men. Women’s suffrage movements emerged in the latter half of the 19th century to address this inequality. Despite advancements in democracy, electoral manipulation by the powerful remained an issue, while the welfare state provided support for the poor.
Maintaining Authoritarian Political Systems
In other countries, liberalism made less progress. In Russia, the Tsar maintained an absolutist regime, and serfdom persisted until 1861. The economy remained largely agricultural, with limited industrialization. Germany adopted a constitution that was not fully liberal, with a parliament elected by universal male suffrage but limited power against the emperor and prime minister. However, Germany did develop advanced social policies. The Austro-Hungarian Empire, initially under the full control of the emperor and supported by the Catholic Church, began to open towards liberalism in the early 20th century, recognizing universal male suffrage in 1906.
What is Imperialism?
Imperialism is the extension of a country’s power over other territories. The conquering nation is the metropolis, and the conquered territories are the colonies. The 19th century saw new players in imperial expansion, with Britain and France as major colonial powers, but other European and non-European empires also emerged. Spain lost its colonies in Latin America and the Pacific.
Economic Factors
Economic factors were crucial. Colonies became markets without customs duties and spaces for capital investment through public works. Colonies rich in natural resources provided cheap raw materials for industries.
Political Factors
Powers seized strategic locations to control important land and sea routes. Territorial expansion increased a country’s prestige and fostered national pride.
Demographic Factors
Western populations grew significantly in the 19th century, leading to European migration to colonies. This alleviated unemployment and urban unrest, with governments often managing these migration flows.
Ideological Factors
Racist ideologies prevalent in the West fueled the belief in white racial superiority and a mission to civilize other peoples and convert them to Christianity. This spurred colonial expansion, with missions established in Africa, Asia, and Oceania. Geographical societies in Britain, France, the U.S., and Germany launched scientific expeditions, claiming the right to conquer and explore new territories. Immigrants, explorers, and missionaries became vehicles of European civilization beyond its borders.