William of Ockham: Philosophy and Political Thought in the 14th Century
William of Ockham: A Revolutionary Thinker of the 14th Century
Life and Context
William of Ockham (1298-1349) lived during a time of profound change. Scholastic philosophy was in crisis, medieval political and religious structures were beginning to decompose, and significant changes were laying the foundation for a new era. Ockham’s work marked a turning point in Western philosophy. Instead of continuing to renew earlier systems, he undertook a systematic and radical critique of everything that had been done before.
Key Philosophical Principles
Ockham’s thought was primarily based on two philosophical principles:
- The principle of divine omnipotence: For God, nothing is impossible.
- The metaphysical principle of economy: Entities should not be multiplied without necessity (often referred to as “Ockham’s Razor”).
Nominalism
Regarding the problem of universals, Ockham adopted a nominalist position. He argued that universals have no reality outside the mind. In reality, only specific and unique beings exist, while universals exist only in the mind as signs that the mind generates to refer to things.
Ockham’s Political Thought: Separation of Church and State
Main Argument
Ockham’s political theory is centered on the defense of the autonomy of civil power, represented by the emperor, from the spiritual power represented by the Church. His main argument can be summarized as follows:
The Pope cannot intervene in the legitimate rights of emperors and kings.
Supporting Ideas
- The legitimate rights of emperors, kings, and other faithful and infidels that are not opposed to the enforcement of evangelical law are exempt from the power granted by Christ to St. Peter and his successors (the popes).
- These rights existed before evangelical law.
- Therefore, the Pope cannot alter or diminish those rights based on the power granted to him by Christ.
- If, in practice, the Pope attempts to do something or passes a sentence against such rights, that sentence would be null and void by divine right itself.
Explanation
Ockham argued that the rights of emperors and kings existed prior to the evangelical law and the institution of the Church, as evidenced by the Roman Empire, which exercised sovereign power with full legitimacy. Therefore, these rights must continue in the same way once the Church began its journey. He asserted that there are two completely independent powers that must be segregated for all purposes.
For Ockham:
- The emperor’s authority does not originate in God and has nothing sacred about it.
- The papacy does not possess the fullness of power that it had claimed for itself and had tried to exercise on multiple occasions.
The Pope’s role should be that of an administrator of spiritual matters without interfering with earthly goods. Furthermore, Ockham asserted the fallibility of the Pope, as he is a human being.
Impact and Legacy
Ockham’s proposal directly challenged the basic assumptions of medieval culture and represented an advance toward Renaissance humanism. However, in the 14th century, in the context of political conflict between the Pope and the Emperor, Ockham’s theses were deeply revolutionary and unacceptable to the papacy. As a result, his writings were banned, and he was forced to flee and seek the protection of Emperor Louis IV.