William Shakespeare: A Life on Stage and Page
William Shakespeare
Early Life and Career (1564-1594)
Birth and Family
William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, where his father, John Shakespeare, was a glove maker and trader in agricultural produce. As an alderman, John Shakespeare was a prominent citizen who rose to the office of mayor (“bailiff”) in 1568. However, he soon after fell on hard times and, ten years later, was badly in debt. Shakespeare’s mother, Mary Arden, was the daughter of a well-to-do farmer from the neighboring village of Wilmcote, suggesting that she married beneath her social class. William was likely educated at the local grammar school, studying Latin and reading classical literature. In November 1582, he married Anne Hathaway, eight years his senior. They had a daughter six months later.
The Lost Years and Arrival in London
There is no record of Shakespeare’s activities for over seven years, from February 1585 (when his twins were baptized) until the autumn of 1592, when he appears as an established playwright in London. Tradition suggests that Shakespeare spent part of these “lost” years teaching Latin in a country school, which would explain his fluency in the language. In the 18th century, Shakespeare scholar Edmond Malone noted that two London theater troupes were under the patronage of the earls of Warwick and Leicester, both living near Stratford. Malone conjectured that when the Queen’s Men performed in Stratford in 1587, Shakespeare might have joined them and returned to London.
Early Plays and Narrative Poems
Shakespeare’s theatrical career blossomed quickly. He is first mentioned in print by playwright Robert Greene, who attacks him as a rival, calling him an “upstart crow” and “the only Shake-scene in the country.” Greene also parodies a line from Henry VI, part of Shakespeare’s initial sequence of history plays on the Wars of the Roses. By 1592, the plague was causing theater closures. Shakespeare had already completed Titus Andronicus and his earliest comedies: The Two Gentlemen of Verona, The Taming of the Shrew, and The Comedy of Errors. During the enforced closures until April 1594, Shakespeare published the narrative poems Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece, dedicating them to the Earl of Southampton. He also began Romeo and Juliet, which, along with Titus Andronicus, assured his popularity.
Comedies and Histories (1595-1601)
Romantic Comedies and Falstaff
By 1595, theaters were open again, and Shakespeare’s next four works—Romeo and Juliet, Love’s Labor’s Lost, Richard II, and A Midsummer Night’s Dream—were marked by lyrical poetry. He was a key member of the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, sharing profits with James and Richard Burbage. This company performed at The Theatre north of the Thames. Their rival, the Lord Admiral’s Men, was located south of the Thames. By 1599, Shakespeare’s company moved into the Globe playhouse on the Bankside. The Lord Chamberlain’s Men became the King’s Men upon James’s accession to the throne in 1603.
This period saw eight of Shakespeare’s nine mature comedies, including the “romantic” comedies: Love’s Labor’s Lost, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, The Merchant of Venice, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It, and Twelfth Night. The Merry Wives of Windsor (1597) is a farce featuring Falstaff. Two later comedies, All’s Well That Ends Well (1601?) and Measure for Measure (1603-4), are less romantic and more realistic.
The Histories and the Earl of Essex
Shakespeare was the company’s main playwright, producing two plays annually. Besides Romeo and Juliet, his comedies, and King John (1594-96), he wrote a second sequence of history plays, starting with Richard II, followed by the Henriad: Henry IV (in two parts) and Henry V. These two tetralogies on English kings from Richard II to Richard III solidified the “histories” genre. While Shakespeare aimed to make audiences reflect on England’s past, in Henry V, he alludes to the Earl of Essex, who enjoyed Queen Elizabeth’s favor in 1599. The company faced embarrassment two years later when Essex, rebelling against the queen, hired them to stage Richard II, drawing a parallel between Elizabeth and the deposed king. Elizabeth, enraged, reportedly said, “I am Richard II. Know ye not that?” Ten years after her death, Shakespeare added Henry VIII (1613) to his histories.
Tragedies (1599-1608)
Hamlet and Other Masterpieces
Around the turn of the century, Shakespeare rewrote a popular non-Shakespearean revenge play called Hamlet. Hamlet (1600), his most famous tragedy, exists in three versions and is significantly longer than his other tragedies. It was followed by Othello (1602-3), King Lear (1605), and Macbeth (1606).
Roman Tragedies
Shakespeare also wrote five tragic dramas set in ancient Greece and Rome. Troilus and Cressida (1601) satirizes the Trojan Wars, while Timon of Athens (1605-6?) explores futility. Inspired by Plutarch’s Lives, Shakespeare wrote three Roman tragedies: Julius Caesar (1599) and Antony and Cleopatra (1606) depict the fall of the Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire, while Coriolanus (1608) examines Rome’s early Republic. In Coriolanus, Shakespeare connects the Roman mob with contemporary politics, referencing the grain riots in England.
Late Plays, Sonnets, and the Canon (1608-1611)
The First Folio and the Shakespearean Canon
Seven years after Shakespeare’s death, actors John Heminge and Henry Condell compiled 36 of his plays into the First Folio (1623), dividing them into comedies, tragedies, and histories. Reprinted three times in the 17th century, the Folio eventually included Pericles and The Two Noble Kinsmen (a collaboration with John Fletcher). This established the Shakespearean canon, which has remained largely unchanged. Modern collections typically include Pericles, and many include The Two Noble Kinsmen. Some scholars argue for including Edward III, published anonymously in 1595, which contains lines recycled in Shakespeare’s later plays and sonnets.
The Sonnets: A Personal Glimpse
Shakespeare’s Sonnets (1609) offer a glimpse into his personal life. Some were likely written as early as 1595, and two (sonnets 138 and 144) were printed in 1599. Scholars debate whether their publication was authorized. The sonnets often echo his plays and may have been inspired by real people, although their identities remain unclear. The first 126 sonnets address a “noble youth,” possibly William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke. The poet urges him to marry and have children but later promises immortality through verse. The poems swing between praise and criticism, reflecting a complex relationship. Sonnets 127 to 154 focus on a “dark lady,” perhaps a fictional representation of lust and self-delusion. Sonnet 144 expresses the poet’s struggle between “two loves,” while sonnet 146 reveals a yearning for renunciation.
Late Romances and The Tempest
The First Folio doesn’t include Shakespeare’s poems, but adding the three later attributed plays brings the total to 39: 12 comedies, 12 tragedies (including The Two Noble Kinsmen), 11 histories (including Edward III), and four late comedies: Pericles (1608), The Winter’s Tale (1609), Cymbeline (1610), and The Tempest (1611). These late comedies, along with Henry VIII (1613) and Shakespeare’s contributions to The Two Noble Kinsmen (1613-14), mark the end of his career.
These comedies, while ending happily, feature tragedy and death. Scholars call them “romances” due to their loose basis on adventure novels. Pericles and The Winter’s Tale are Mediterranean romances spanning generations. Cymbeline, set in ancient Britain, explores historical politics. The Tempest, set on Prospero’s island, has drawn attention for its themes of colonialism and conquest.
Shifting Focus: From Nation to Court
These late plays contrast with Shakespeare’s earlier histories. In the 1590s, he wrote for an audience excited about England’s future after the defeat of the Spanish Armada. By the 1600s, his focus shifted from national epics to the intrigues of the court, offering “domestic” romance instead of inspiring history.
The Man from Stratford
Retirement and Legacy
Records show that Shakespeare regularly visited Stratford and acquired property there. He secured a coat of arms for himself and his father, who died a “gentleman” in 1601. Shakespeare lost his son Hamnet in 1596, but his other children, Judith and Susanna, lived to marry. Shakespeare enjoyed a prosperous retirement, receiving visits from fellow actors and poets. He died in 1616, possibly from a fever, and was buried in Stratford. His wife, Anne, died in 1623, and their direct line ended with their granddaughter’s death in 1670. Only Shakespeare’s collateral family, through his sister Joan, survived.
Shakespeare’s Posthumous Reputation
Over 100 documents provide insights into Shakespeare’s life, more than for most commoners. Around 50 contemporaries refer to him as a famous playwright. After the Restoration (1660), writers like Dryden praised his plays, and interest in his personal life grew. Nicholas Rowe, the first to edit the plays, visited Stratford seeking biographical information. In 1769, David Garrick organized the first Stratford Jubilee, solidifying Shakespeare’s cultural status. By the 1790s, documents were being forged in his name. While Edmond Malone established a historical basis for Shakespeare studies, Romantic critics proclaimed him a universal genius.
Bardolatry and the Search for the “True” Shakespeare
In the 19th and 20th centuries, Shakespeare worship, dubbed “Bardolatry” by George Bernard Shaw, intensified. While Romantic critics like Coleridge, Lamb, Hazlitt, and Keats admired his artistry, others sought a more illustrious biography. Some proposed Francis Bacon as the true author, despite his lack of poetic talent. Others suggested the Earl of Oxford, although this theory is chronologically impossible. These theories reflect a discomfort with Shakespeare’s commoner background, assuming that great art must originate from the upper classes.
Shakespeare’s Enduring Appeal
Shakespeare’s preoccupation with honor and his portrayal of the aristocracy from an outsider’s perspective resonate with modern audiences. His plays avoid preaching or propaganda, instead exploring complex themes through relatable characters. While acknowledging class distinctions, Shakespeare’s works ultimately transcend them, celebrating creative civility and exposing the consequences of its absence. His enduring appeal lies in his ability to capture the timeless essence of the human experience, making his plays as relevant today as they were centuries ago.
Bibliographical Note
Recent scholarship has challenged the established texts of Shakespeare’s plays. The New Cambridge, Oxford, New Penguin, and Arden editions offer valuable insights. For textual analysis, see William Shakespeare: A Textual Companion (Oxford, 1987). Alfred Harbage’s William Shakespeare: A Reader’s Guide (New York, 1963) provides an introduction to the plays. Samuel Schoenbaum’s William Shakespeare: A Compact Documentary Life (Oxford; rev. 1987) is a useful biography. For more on Bardolatry, see Schoenbaum’s Shakespeare’s Lives (Oxford; rev. 1991). The 1998 film Shakespeare in Love offers a fictionalized account of the playwright’s early career.