Women’s Rights Movements: A History of Activism and Social Change
Early activists fought for the right to vote (suffrage), the prohibition of liquor, raising the age of consent, and better maternity conditions (parks, food, milk). They also advocated for the peaceful settlement of international conflicts. Most were middle and upper-class white women who believed in white supremacy, and their ideals often didn’t benefit women outside their social and ethnic origin.
However, women of other backgrounds also participated:
- Rural US women: Supported progressive farming and urban reforms, and opposed alcohol. They were divided between conservative women fighting “radicals” and groups supporting Socialist and Anarchist movements in rural areas.
- Working-class women during wartime: Worked closely with unions, demanding better working conditions.
- African American and British American women: Fought for better job opportunities, salaries, and working conditions. They also wanted more schools, hospitals, and churches, and fought against racism, seeking racial uplift.
While all agreed on the need for schools, their purposes varied. Upper and middle-class white women wanted schools for the lower classes to maintain social divisions by ensuring the production of working-class people. Working-class and African American women saw schools as an opportunity to prosper.
Scholarly Perspectives
Scholars have three main perspectives on this wave:
- Middle/upper-class women’s actions as an entry of women into US politics, which, despite being conservative, paved the way for later women’s movements.
- Those who highlight the initiatives of underprivileged women, as Sojourner Truth did in “Ain’t I a Woman?”
- Those who criticize the influence of white women in promoting conservative ideas.
The Equal Rights Tendency
This movement originated from women active within established political parties, particularly Democrats. They supported Kennedy in the 1960 elections, who later established a Presidential Commission on the Status of Women. This led to the creation of NOW (National Organization for Women) in 1966. NOW, influenced by Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique, initially focused on white middle-class women but later included a third of black and Latina women. It aimed to guarantee women’s rights and fight sex discrimination.
Women’s Liberation
This movement originated from left-leaning young women unhappy with the oppression of power. They had an artistic, street-wise, and optimistic appeal. They were an autonomous, women-only group, aiming to educate women and create unbiased knowledge about women.
Challenges and Divisions
- Black Exclusion: While they tried to integrate non-white women, most leaders were white. Many black women found their homes safe from racism, so criticism of domesticity didn’t resonate the same way. Additionally, job demands required education they often lacked. This led to black women criticizing the category of “women” due to a lack of critical awareness of race, ethnicity, or class, and independent feminist groups emerged. These groups increased awareness of non-white culture within black and Chicano communities, uncovering non-white artists and promoting their culture in US life.
- Gender and Sexuality: NOW feared that radical ideas about sexuality would discredit the movement, although this tension has been exaggerated. Feminists fought to raise awareness of other forms of understanding sex and sexuality, but some non-heterosexual women formed their own organizations with a more critical agenda. This led to working closely with gay rights associations, often led by gay men who didn’t always share power with women.
- Religion: Many white feminists came from a Jewish background, reinforcing divisions within the “white group.” They defended reproductive rights, including the legalization of abortion and more institutional support for raising children, and denounced racialized sterilization. They were against pornography, denouncing acts of violence within it. The Women Against Pornography (WAP) was supported by non-feminist conservative politicians who also tried to prohibit pornography. The Feminist Anti-Censorship Taskforce (FACT) denounced the use of women as objects but defended the right of women to enjoy their bodies while fighting against conservative understandings of sex and sexuality.
The Decline of the Second Wave
During the decline of the second wave, some activists left activism, while others turned it into a profession, moving actions from the streets to the courts (lawyers). The fight became less radical and more practical. New generations took previous achievements for granted, becoming more passive. Institutions spent millions of dollars convincing the masses that a feminist agenda was unnecessary, offering a negative vision of it.