Work Through History: Society, Technology, and Labor
Work as a Human Need
Work encompasses the set of tasks aimed at ensuring the survival of human groups and generating wealth to meet evolving needs. It is a fundamental human need and a source of personal fulfillment.
Throughout history, work involves two evolving elements:
- The ways humans relate to each other.
- The level of technological development enabling the satisfaction of needs.
In the earliest stages of human development, tribal societies practiced a subsistence economy. Despite underdeveloped social structures, a division of labor existed: some tribal members performed tasks like hunting and fishing, while others were involved in caring for children.
The development of agriculture and livestock brought significant changes:
- Groups ceased being nomadic, settling in areas suitable for cultivation and animal husbandry.
- Production grew more complex, leading to new professions (e.g., goldsmiths, blacksmiths).
- An economic surplus emerged – production exceeding immediate consumption needs, which required management.
A specific group, often priests or warriors, concentrated power and distanced themselves from manual labor, while the majority of workers were often enslaved. This marked the beginning of an unequal distribution of wealth, power, and knowledge within communities.
The Rise of Industry
During the Middle Ages, slavery was largely replaced by servitude. Farmers paid tribute to feudal lords, often by working their land or giving them a portion of their produce.
The late 18th century saw the Industrial Revolution begin in England, shifting the economy from an agrarian base to one centered on machine-driven industry.
Emergence of Free Workers
A fundamental change in industrial economies was the focus on producing assets to generate the maximum possible wealth.
Capital played a crucial role, providing the means to purchase raw materials, invest in machinery, and hire the necessary labor. Free workers (distinct from slaves or serfs), often lacking other means of subsistence, were compelled to sell their labor to factory owners.
Struggle for Production Control
The initial stage of the Industrial Revolution led to the rise of the capitalist workshop. Former master craftsmen, previously independent, often became employees of the capitalist owners of these workshops.
Initially, workers in these factories often understood the entire production process and could set their own pace.
In the late 19th century, American engineer Frederick Taylor reorganized the work process (often referred to as Taylorism):
- Each worker was assigned a specific part of the production process, following detailed orders given by engineers.
- Tasks became routine and repetitive (e.g., driving a nail, adjusting a screw), requiring minimal specific instruction.
This division of labor enabled a significant increase (a quantum leap) in business productivity, allowing for much larger production quantities compared to earlier small-scale work.
Worker-Employer Relations & State Role
During the early Industrial Revolution, worker exploitation was common (e.g., very low wages, child and female labor under harsh conditions, excessively long workdays, such as 15 hours). This spurred workers to organize and demand better working conditions.
Initially, the state often played a repressive role, sometimes violently suppressing worker movements and organizations.
Welfare Capitalism
Between approximately 1945 and 1970, a period of significant economic growth occurred in many developed nations. During this time, the state increasingly took responsibility for ensuring workers’ basic needs (such as health, housing, education, and recreation) were met. This era is known as the rise of the Welfare State.
The Neoliberal Shift
The emergence of neoliberal policies starting in the 1970s led to several significant changes:
- The partial dismantling or restructuring of the Welfare State in many countries.
- An increased emphasis on market logic and deregulation.
- Reductions in some previously established labor rights and protections.
- Redefined work processes emphasizing new forms of flexibility:
- Internal flexibility: Employees performing multiple and varied tasks.
- External flexibility: Practices such as easier dismissal, often with reduced or no compensation requirements for employers.
Furthermore, ongoing technological development rendered some traditional forms of labor unnecessary, while the globalization of production encouraged industries to relocate manufacturing and other operations to places where wages and operating costs were lower.
These combined trends contributed to rising unemployment in some sectors, an increase in temporary or precarious jobs (the ‘gig economy’), and downward pressure on wages in certain regions and industries.
Future challenges prominently include finding sustainable solutions to unemployment and underemployment, and addressing the complex problem of how to distribute wealth more equitably for the benefit of the majority of people worldwide.