Workers’ Associations, Marxism, Anarchism, and Internationalism
Early Workers’ Associations
The initial response of workers to industrialization was opposition to machines, blamed for low wages and poor working conditions. Protests included the destruction of machinery and industrial facilities (Luddism). This resistance spread across Europe in the early 19th century. Some workers realized they shared common problems and goals, developing class consciousness. To defend their interests, they formed organizations like the first Mutual Aid Societies, which provided relief to members in need. These societies originated in Britain in the 18th century. Initially illegal, workers’ associations were later legalized by liberal governments. In 1825, Britain repealed laws banning them, leading to the foundation of the first unions, which united workers from the same industry (e.g., the General Union of Filadors).
Marxism and Socialism
In the mid-19th century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels highlighted the exploitation of the working class and advocated for a workers’ revolution to overthrow capitalism. They believed the proletariat would seize political power, establish a worker’s state, and socialize property. From the late 19th century, Marxists proposed creating socialist workers’ parties. While their ultimate goal was proletarian revolution, they also supported political engagement through elections and parliamentary participation. This would allow them to promote socialist legislation benefiting workers (e.g., universal suffrage, eight-hour workdays).
Anarchism
Anarchism encompassed thinkers like Proudhon, Bakunin, and Kropotkin, who shared three core principles: the exaltation of individual freedom and social solidarity; criticism of private property and advocacy for collective ownership; and rejection of authority, particularly the state. They advocated for revolutionary action by workers and peasants to dismantle the state and create a new, egalitarian society. Collectivist anarchists opposed political participation and the formation of workers’ parties. Some supported violent action against capitalism, while others promoted revolutionary unions to improve working conditions and foster social revolution.
Internationalism
Both anarchists and Marxists recognized the need for global working-class unity to combat capitalism (proletarian internationalism). In 1864, Marx initiated the International Workers’ Association, which included Marxists, anarchists, and trade unionists. However, significant ideological differences between Marxists and anarchists proved insurmountable, leading to its dissolution in 1876. In 1889, leading socialists founded the Second International in Paris. Unlike the first, its sole purpose was to coordinate programs and actions among various socialist parties. It also established symbols of the labor movement, such as the anthem <> and the celebration of May Day (Labor Day).