Workers’ Movement: Industrialization and Social Change
Workers’ Movement: City as a Center
The population in cities was growing, reflecting the predominance of industrial activity. The industrialized world was becoming a world of cities. The first country to experience this change was the UK, and London was a prime example. It was the most populated city in the world, experiencing a rural exodus and high birth rates. This growth caused urban poverty.
Industrial Society and Modernization
The modernization process was linked to industrialization. Three types of nineteenth-century societies emerged in Europe:
- Rural Traditional: Dedicated to agriculture. Field workers could be landowners or laborers (e.g., Southern Spain and Italy).
- Rural Evolved: Agriculture became market-oriented, with land owned by nobles, the bourgeoisie, and rich peasants (e.g., England).
- Urban: Characterized by a rural exodus. Three main groups emerged: the industrial proletariat, the bourgeoisie, and the middle class (e.g., Britain, France).
The Rise of the Bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie shaped the new way of life. The middle class became a powerful social group, basing its power on wealth (plutocracy). Only the wealthiest had access to the upper echelons. The upper bourgeoisie ran their businesses and were committed to economic progress.
A spectrum of “middle classes” emerged, designating professional men of business and distinguishing them from both the nobility and agricultural/industrial workers. The median bourgeoisie advocated for order and dedicated themselves to work. The lower middle class (petty bourgeoisie) had little economic power and were always at work.
Problems of Industrialization
Industrialization brought profound social changes and arduous living conditions. Workers became a new social group, comprised of peasants (unable to continue with traditional methods), employees working at home (forced to adapt to new demands), and artisans (displaced from guilds and workshops). Working conditions were characterized by long hours, corporal punishment, no breaks, easy dismissal, and a lack of rights. Trade unions emerged as workers sought better conditions.
Debate on Quality of Life
Engels conducted a study of the working class in England and argued that the standard of living had decreased.
Ideological Bases of the Labor Movement
Thinkers denounced the injustices faced by the working class:
Utopian Socialism
Utopian socialists envisioned a struggle between employers and workers and sought to perfect society.
Ideologues:
- Count-Saint-Simon: Advocated for an industry-based society with a technocracy to ensure a better life for the poor.
- Charles Fourier: Hated capitalist social enterprise and proposed the formation of falansteris (agricultural centers) with equal opportunities for men and women.
- Robert Owen: A textile manufacturing partner who improved living conditions and founded the ideal community of New Harmony (which was unsuccessful).
- P.J. Proudhon: Argued that property is theft, criticized bourgeois democracy and state organizations, and proposed mutualism, with men defending freedom.
Marxist Socialism
Marxism sought to analyze the contradictions of capitalism and destroy it, aiming to replace the capitalist system with a classless society without private property.
Anarchism
Bakunin defended rebellion against capitalist society and sought to destroy the state and bourgeois order.
Development and Origins of Labor Organization
Organized workers fought against abuse.
Precedents: Friendly Societies and the Luddite Movement
Friendly societies evolved into unions. The Luddite movement rejected the surge of textile industry machines. Unions and clubs spread throughout the United Kingdom.
Trade Unionism in the United Kingdom
- Peterloo Massacre: Protests against the Corn Laws.
- Grand National Consolidated Trades Union: A union for all workers.
- Chartism: Demanded worker participation and universal suffrage.
- Trade Unions Act: Legalized worker associations.
Trade Unionism in Europe
- France: Allowed worker associations.
- Germany: Legalized unions.
- Italy: Saw workers’ struggles.
- Spain: Recognized the right to association.
The First International
British and French trade unionists met, inspired by Marxist and anarchist ideologies. By 1872, divisions within the organization materialized, leading to its decline.
The Second International
Marx proposed creating games because workers saw the first one failing. It prohibited participation from delegates who did not recognize the necessity of working organization and political action, excluding anarchist unionists. It became an international of socialist nature, opposed to collaboration with bourgeois political parties and colonialism.
The Third International
Led by Lenin, it led to the creation of socialist parties and movements.