World War I: A Concise Overview
The Road to War
In the years leading up to World War I, European nations engaged in a massive military buildup, extending conscription periods and using media propaganda to stoke nationalism and a sense of impending conflict. Chancellor Bismarck’s ambition to initiate a European war through Balkan conflict tragically underestimated the devastating consequences: ten million deaths, global involvement extending to China and Japan, the collapse of empires, and the rise of the U.S. as a global power.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, ignited the conflict. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, expecting a localized conflict. However, Russia’s mobilization in support of Serbia prompted Germany, Austria’s ally, to feel threatened.
The existing alliance blocs—the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente—were immediately activated:
- Germany declared war on Russia.
- Germany’s demand for French neutrality was refused.
- Germany invaded neutral Belgium.
- Britain, in response to the violation of Belgian neutrality, declared war on Germany.
The Three Phases of Conflict
European parliaments, anticipating a short war, allocated significant military budgets for modern weaponry like submarines, machine guns, tanks, and poison gas. The mobilization of peasants and workers by both sides ultimately eroded working-class national sentiment. Rationing became necessary to sustain both military and civilian populations.
The war’s unexpected length and devastating impact stemmed from the use of outdated strategic plans with modern weaponry. Soldiers were forced into trench warfare, resulting in prolonged stalemates.
Initially, Belgium, Russia, Serbia, France, and Britain (with its colonies) fought against the Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey. Japan joined the Allied side to seize German colonies in the Pacific. Bulgaria allied with the Central Powers in 1915. Portugal and Romania joined the Entente in 1916, followed by Greece in 1917. The U.S. entry into the war gave the conflict a global dimension.
The War of Movement (August-September 1914)
This phase involved rapid troop movements aimed at surprising France first, then Russia. French operations in Alsace and Lorraine failed to prevent German advances near Paris. The first French victory forced Germany to spread its troops along an 800 km front from the English Channel to the Swiss border, while also opening an eastern front against Russia.
Trench Warfare (1915-1916)
By the winter of 1914, both sides had dug into trenches, leading to static front lines until March 1918. Psychological warfare, including bombing civilian cities and distributing propaganda leaflets, became prominent in 1916. The ten-month siege of Verdun resulted in half a million casualties.
In 1916, Britain implemented a naval blockade in the North Sea to disrupt German supply lines. Following the Battle of Jutland, Germany began using submarines to target any ship, impacting U.S. trade and contributing to their eventual entry into the war.
By late 1916, widespread indiscipline affected the German army. War profiteering, strikes, and riots over high living costs fueled social unrest. Socialist parties and unions exploited the crisis to promote pacifist ideals.