World War I: A Concise Overview
The Opposing Forces
The five major powers were involved in the conflict. The alliance system worked for the Triple Entente (France, Russia, and Great Britain), but failed the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) due to Italy’s neutrality. All major powers were involved except Switzerland, Spain, and the Netherlands.
The Quick War: 1914
Germany invaded French territory, and France failed to defend itself initially. The second phase of the war was the Battle of the Marne, where the Germans were forced to withdraw from French territory. Unexpected Russian attacks in East Prussia forced Germany to divert troops from the Western Front.
War of Positions: 1915
Armies defended lines through trenches. This defensive system was nearly impassable. This new form of warfare required new weapons like grenades, mortars, aircraft, and armored vehicles. Given the stalemate, the Central Powers attacked the Eastern Front and pushed back the Russians. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, opening new battlegrounds.
The War of Attrition: 1916
The Battle of Verdun lasted four months with minimal territorial changes. The Battle of the Somme failed to break the German lines. The naval blockade compelled Germany to attack Britain, but the Germans withdrew to their disadvantage. The war spread to the Ottoman Empire and the British.
The Decisive Year: 1917
The Central Powers’ withdrawal benefited Russia, and U.S. intervention favored the Allies. The Russian Revolution affected the war’s continuity. The U.S. remained neutral initially, becoming a supplier. German submarine warfare began to affect the UK’s supplies. The sinking of a U.S. merchant ship forced the U.S. into the war.
The End of the Conflict: 1918
In February, the Bolshevik government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Russia’s exit allowed Germany to concentrate troops on the French front for a final offensive. The Allied counterattack forced a general German retreat. Germany lost support, the Turks retreated, Bulgaria signed an armistice, and Austria-Hungary was left alone. Revolution and riots forced the Kaiser to abdicate. The armistice was signed, ending the war.
Proposals for Peace
U.S. President Wilson’s Fourteen Points proposed the right of self-determination for nations, including the Ottoman Empire. European peoples were subjected to nationalist pressure, and government and press actions led to the acceptance of war as inevitable.
Causes of World War I
1. European Rivalries
France and Germany’s prior war resulted in France losing Alsace and Lorraine. France wanted to regain these territories, while Germany aimed to keep France isolated. In 1879, Germany formed the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy. France sought support from Russia in 1892. Economic and political differences between Britain and Germany led to competition in foreign markets and a naval arms race. This forced the UK to seek support from France and Russia, forming the Triple Entente. Differences between Austria-Hungary and Russia led to an arms race.
2. The Balkan Conflict
Austria-Hungary and Russia clashed over expanding their borders. Russia wanted control of the straits for its Black Sea fleet to access the Mediterranean. Smaller Balkan states wanted to maintain independence. Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, threatening Russian interests. Russia encouraged smaller states to confront the Ottoman Empire. In 1912, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro formed the Balkan League. The First Balkan War ended in Turkish defeat. The Second Balkan War saw Bulgaria attack Serbia and Greece, resulting in Bulgaria’s defeat. Serbia consolidated its territories, escalating tensions and accelerating the arms race.
3. Radical Nationalism
Small nations under Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and Ottoman rule desired independence. Nationalist pressure and government and press influence led to the acceptance of war.
4. March to War
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, by a Bosnian nationalist triggered the conflict. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and declared war. Austria-Hungary and Germany believed a Balkan war wouldn’t involve France and the UK supporting Russia. Austria’s ultimatum to Serbia led to war and the alliance system activated. Russia attacked Austria, Germany invaded Belgium, and Britain attacked Germany.