World War I: A Global Conflict
1. The Road to War
1.1. The Alliance System
Europe’s major powers formed a complex web of alliances, creating a climate of mistrust and fear. The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (France, Russia, and Great Britain) stood poised against each other.
1.2. Imperial Rivalries
Competition for colonies and resources fueled tensions between European powers. The Moroccan Crises and the Balkan Wars highlighted these rivalries and further destabilized the region.
2. The Crises
2.1. Moroccan Crises
Germany challenged French influence in Morocco, leading to international incidents that escalated tensions between the two nations.
2.2. Balkan Crises
The Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires vied for control of the Balkans, exploiting the weakness of the Ottoman Empire. Three successive crises erupted, culminating in the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary. The Balkan Wars further destabilized the region, with Serbia emerging as a major beneficiary.
3. The Development of the Conflict
3.1. The Outbreak of War
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo triggered a chain of events that plunged Europe into war. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and the alliance system quickly drew other nations into the conflict. Russia sided with Serbia, Germany with Austria-Hungary, and so on. Britain joined the war after Germany invaded neutral Belgium.
3.2. Trench Warfare and War of Movement
The Central Powers initially had advantages, but the war on two fronts stretched their resources. The German blitzkrieg strategy failed at the Battle of the Marne, leading to trench warfare. The Battle of Verdun and the Somme offensive exemplified the brutal stalemate on the Western Front. On the Eastern Front, Russia’s initial offensive was countered by German forces.
3.3. The Globalization of the Conflict
The war expanded beyond Europe, with Italy joining the Allies and the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joining the Central Powers. Colonial territories provided troops and resources. The Battle of Jutland, a major naval battle, had no clear victor. German submarine warfare, including the sinking of the Lusitania, drew the United States into the war.
3.4. A New Kind of War
World War I involved entire populations, both civilian and military. Millions of civilians became refugees. The war’s impact was widespread and devastating.