World War I: A Summary
Quick War II: 1914
Germany’s Schlieffen Plan, designed to prevent a rapid war, was based on a swift attack on France through neutral Belgium. This aimed to avoid France’s strong border defenses and attack their army from behind. After defeating France, Germany intended to force Russia to surrender. The plan envisioned a six-week victory against France.
The German campaign had two phases. The first phase saw the Battle of the Frontiers, where the French defense failed to halt the German advance. The second phase was the Battle of the Marne, where Allied counterattacks stopped the exhausted Germans. Russia’s surprise attack in East Prussia further aided the Allies, leading to a stalemate. By the end of 1914, Germany’s quick war plan had failed. However, they had conquered parts of northeastern France, Belgium, and Russian Poland, indicating a long war ahead.
Positional Warfare: 1915
By 1915, Germany’s opponents had not broken through their lines, leading to a new form of warfare: positional warfare. Troops defended fixed positions, primarily trench lines. The French defense system, with its relatively small trenches, made life difficult. Soldiers spent years in these trenches. This system, though brutal and demanding, proved effective on many fronts.
1915 also saw the introduction of new weapons, including airplanes and tanks, primarily on the Western Front. The Allies, seeking to relieve pressure on the Eastern Front, launched a surprise attack on the central powers. However, the 1915 campaign ultimately favored the Central Powers.
War of Attrition: 1916
By 1916, both sides realized the difficulty of achieving a decisive victory. The Western Front saw a new strategy: the war of attrition. The most notable battle was the four-month Battle of Verdun, which resulted in no significant change in the front lines. A few months later, the Allies launched another offensive: the Battle of the Somme. Despite a three-month assault, they failed to break through the German lines. Germany responded to these attacks with a naval blockade of Britain, leading to the Battle of Jutland between the two fleets. The 1916 campaign was more balanced than the previous two years.
The Crucial Years: 1917
The war’s balance shifted in 1917 with Russia’s exit and the United States’ entry. Russia’s withdrawal favored the Central Powers, but America’s involvement ultimately tipped the scales towards the Allies. Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare, initiated in 1915 to cut off British supply lines, continued. In 1917, French Commander Nivelle launched another offensive against the Germans, but it proved futile.
Civil unrest grew in 1917, marked by mutinies and strikes. Shortages, rising prices, and deteriorating living conditions fueled public discontent with the war.
Closing the War: 1918
One of the first decisions of the Bolshevik government in Russia was to sign an armistice, ending their involvement in the war. This armistice led to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. By the summer of 1918, Germany had lost all its military allies. The situation was dire, with revolutionary uprisings and the emperor’s abdication. On November 9th, the German Republic was declared, ending the war.
The Aftermath: Peace and Alliances
The war had devastating consequences for all involved except the United States. Millions were killed and wounded. The war’s impact on birth rates, coupled with disease and malnutrition, led to a significant population decline. The economic toll was also severe, with widespread destruction and massive debts. Europe became heavily reliant on loans from the United States. The war left behind social and moral damage, including millions of widows, orphans, and disabled individuals. Pessimism gripped Europe as pre-war problems remained unresolved. The war’s objectives – total war and unconditional surrender – proved self-destructive, leaving both victors and vanquished broken.
Proposals for Peace
US President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points heavily influenced the peace proposals. These principles, presented during the armistice negotiations, advocated for open diplomacy, general disarmament, and self-determination. The final point proposed creating an international organization to prevent future wars, a precursor to the League of Nations. Despite Wilson’s idealism, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau prioritized weakening Germany and ensuring France’s future security. Britain aimed to restore the balance of power in Europe to prevent another war.
The Peace Treaties
The Paris Peace Conference began in 1919, with representatives from the victorious powers: the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Japan. The defeated nations were excluded from the negotiations. The conference resulted in five treaties, the most important being the Treaty of Versailles. This treaty led to the dissolution of empires and the creation of new nations.
A Flawed Peace
The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms on Germany, blaming it for the war and demanding territorial concessions, including Alsace-Lorraine. Germany’s military was significantly reduced, and the Rhineland was demilitarized. The treaty also imposed heavy war reparations on Germany and excluded it from the League of Nations. This treaty fueled resentment in Germany, contributing to the rise of extremism and the outbreak of World War II. Italy was also dissatisfied with the treaty’s outcome. The Treaty of Versailles, widely seen as unjust and vindictive, sowed the seeds of future conflict.
The League of Nations
The League of Nations was established to prevent future wars. Its primary goals were to maintain international peace and security, resolve conflicts peacefully, promote disarmament, and foster cooperation among nations. However, the League had limitations. It lacked the authority to enforce its decisions and relied on moral and economic sanctions. Despite its shortcomings, the League successfully resolved minor conflicts, organized territorial administration and plebiscites in disputed areas, and promoted international cooperation.