World War I: Causes, Battles, and Consequences
The First World War
Causes of the War
1. Territorial Confrontations
- Alsace-Lorraine: Confrontation between France and Germany over the Alsace-Lorraine region (controlled by Germany).
- Balkan Peninsula: Russia and Austria-Hungary were concerned about the instability in the Balkans and competed for influence in the region.
The confrontation between Russia, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire, along with the internal problems of the Balkans, led to the Balkan Crisis.
Balkan Crisis:
Crisis of 1908: Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia-Herzegovina. Russia and Serbia opposed this move, leading to a tense standoff. Serbia sought help from Russia, but Russia ultimately declined to intervene. Austria-Hungary retained control of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Crisis of 1912: Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire and emerged victorious. However, disputes arose between them over the division of the conquered territories. Serbia gained the most, which raised concerns in Austria-Hungary.
2. Economic Rivalries
There were clashes between Germany and Great Britain, as Britain feared Germany’s growing economic power and naval ambitions.
3. Colonial Conflicts
There were clashes between France and Germany over Morocco, leading to several crises. In the first Moroccan Crisis, Germany challenged France’s influence in Morocco, declaring itself a defender of Moroccan independence. Ultimately, Morocco came under French-Spanish protection.
The second Moroccan Crisis saw another Franco-German clash. Germany received a part of the French Congo in exchange for recognizing French interests in Morocco.
The Opposing Blocs
1. The Central Powers
The Triple Alliance, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, formed the core of the Central Powers. They were later joined by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria. Italy eventually switched sides to join the Allies.
2. The Allies
The Triple Entente, consisting of France, Russia, and Great Britain, formed the core of the Allies. They were later joined by Serbia, Greece, Italy, and eventually the United States.
Characteristics of the Conflict
- New Weapons and Defensive Systems: The war saw the use of new weapons and defensive systems, such as machine guns, poison gas, tanks, and trenches. New technologies and control systems were also employed.
- Women in the Workforce: Women entered the workforce in large numbers to fill the jobs vacated by men who went to war.
- Growth of the Arms Industry: The arms industry experienced significant growth. Resources became scarce, leading to rationing for the civilian population and increased state intervention in the economy.
Development of the War
1. Outbreak of War
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife were assassinated during an official visit to Sarajevo (Bosnia). The assassination was carried out by a terrorist group called the “Black Hand,” which was supported by Serbia. Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia with a series of demands and a deadline for compliance. Failure to meet the demands would result in a declaration of war. Russia mobilized its troops to the Austrian border and declared that if Austria-Hungary invaded Serbia, Russia would invade Austria-Hungary. Germany then came to the aid of Austria-Hungary. When Germany mobilized, France and Great Britain entered the war in defense of Russia. The alliance system was thus activated. The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, while Serbia, Greece, and Portugal joined the Allies. Italy and the United States later joined the Allies.
Germany, facing a two-front war, effectively initiated the conflict:
- Eastern Front: Against Russia (and later Austria-Hungary).
- Western Front: Against France.
2. War of Movement (1914)
Germany invaded Belgium to gain access to France and catch it off guard. Both armies dug in, leading to a stalemate and trench warfare.
3. Trench Warfare (1915-1916)
This phase saw the Battle of Verdun, a costly and protracted battle won by France, but with little strategic impact.
4. 1917: Key Events
Two major events occurred in 1917:
1. Russia’s Withdrawal: Russia withdrew from the war and signed a peace treaty with Germany, making significant territorial concessions. Germany could now focus its forces on the Western Front.
2. US Entry into the War: In 1916, a German submarine sank the British passenger liner Lusitania, which had American citizens on board. The US declared war on Germany in 1917. While the US entry did not have an immediate impact, it significantly boosted the Allied war effort. Germany, facing a renewed Allied offensive, called for a ceasefire (Armistice) and peace negotiations.
The Paris Peace Conference
In 1918, US President Woodrow Wilson formulated a peace program known as the “Fourteen Points,” which proposed that peace treaties should not be based on revenge or humiliation. After the war, the victorious countries met in Paris in 1919 to establish the peace terms to be imposed on the defeated nations. Wilson’s peace program was largely sidelined.
The Paris Peace Conference produced five treaties, one for each defeated country. The most important was the Treaty of Versailles, imposed on Germany. This treaty stipulated that Germany should:
- Cede Alsace and Lorraine to France.
- Cede territories to Poland (including the Danzig Corridor), which divided Germany.
- Lose all its colonies.
- Pay reparations to the victors for war damages, primarily to France.
- Grant France control of the Saar coal mines.
- Dismantle its army and military hardware.
- Surrender its merchant fleet to Great Britain.
The Treaty of Versailles blamed Germany for the war and was seen as harsh and vindictive. It fostered resentment and a desire for revenge among the German people.
Consequences of the War
- Territorial Changes: New countries emerged, including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Poland regained lost territories. Czechoslovakia and Hungary were created. Romania expanded its territory, and Yugoslavia was formed.
- Loss of Life: The war resulted in an enormous loss of life, with millions of soldiers and civilians killed.
- Social Transformations: Women entered the workforce in large numbers. The middle classes experienced impoverishment, and the figure of the war veteran emerged.
- Economic Disaster for Europe: The war caused immense material destruction and left many countries heavily indebted. Europe lost its economic dominance, and the United States emerged as the leading world power.