World War I: Causes, Combat, and Aftermath
The First World War
1. Introduction.
International conflict is more than just a clash between nations; it’s a complex interplay of historical, political, and economic factors. The First World War, which began in 1914 and ended in 1918, was a global conflict unlike any seen before, involving combatants from multiple continents. The war’s conclusion marked the beginning of peace negotiations, culminating in the first peace treaty signed in 1919.
Initially known as the Great War, the conflict was preceded by an era of “armed peace.” Countries were prepared for war, yet maintained a fragile peace. Extensive alliance networks were formed, ultimately setting the stage for the war’s outbreak following the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian heir.
2. Previous context.
2.1 Background:
The Moroccan Crisis: Several early 20th-century conflicts, such as the Agadir Incident, highlighted the international tensions. Agadir, a port city, was a strategic location desired by multiple powers. Germany’s claim to the port, rather than solely French control, led to a standoff. Germany’s deployment of a warship to Agadir escalated the situation, but ultimately, Germany retreated. Further conflicts arose in the Rif and Atlas regions, primarily with the indigenous populations. The mountainous Rif region proved difficult to control, leading to conflicts between the local population and French and Spanish troops.
The Balkan Crisis: The Balkan territories, previously under Ottoman control, witnessed three major wars aimed at expelling the Turks and establishing independent nations. Despite detailed peace treaties, these proved ineffective, and the region remained a powder keg, capable of igniting a wider conflict.
2.2 Pre-war alliances
The Triple Alliance: This military agreement, initially signed in 1882 under Bismarck’s leadership, comprised Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. These geographically proximate nations shared interests in expanding their influence globally. The alliance was renewed periodically, but Italy remained neutral at the war’s outset before eventually switching sides.
The Triple Entente: This alliance consisted of three separate agreements: the Anglo-Russian Agreement (primarily focused on avoiding conflict in Asia), the Franco-Russian Agreement (formed after Bismarck’s departure), and the Entente Cordiale between the UK and France (dividing North African colonies).
Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joined the Triple Alliance, seeking to control the Balkan Peninsula. Serbia and North African territories (Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria) allied with the Triple Entente. Several countries remained neutral initially, including Spain, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, and Portugal. The United States, Japan, and Greece joined later, with the U.S. entry prompted by German submarine attacks on American ships.
2.3 Areas of conflict
Several regions were particularly volatile due to their strategic importance and diverse populations:
- Alsace-Lorraine: Rich in resources, this region was a major point of contention.
- The Balkans: Nationalist aspirations and the desire for independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire fueled conflict. Bulgaria’s access to the sea was a significant factor, and the region’s diverse cultures (Mediterranean, Muslim, Orthodox Christian) contributed to long-standing tensions.
- Northeastern Italy: Mixed Italian and Austrian populations created friction.
- Poland: The absence of an independent Polish state created tensions among German, Polish, and other populations.
- German colonies: Border disputes with England and France, particularly in the Middle East, were significant sources of conflict.
3. War
2.4 Attack on Sarajevo and block synchronization.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, served as the catalyst for the war. Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb with anarchist leanings, was arrested. Evidence linked the Serbian government to the attack, which Serbia denied. Austria’s subsequent ultimatum to Serbia, demanding an explanation within two days, ultimately led to war.
3. War
On July 28, Austria declared war on Serbia, initiating the artillery bombardment of Belgrade. The existing alliances quickly drew other nations into the conflict. By the summer of 1914, the world was engulfed in war.
Two major alliances emerged:
- The Central Powers: Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire.
- The Allied Powers: Initially comprised of the Triple Entente, this alliance grew to include other nations.
The Entente had a greater chance of winning a prolonged war due to superior resources. However, a short war might have favored the Central Powers due to their strategic positioning.
3.1. War.
In 1914, the war was characterized by mobile warfare, with armies crossing borders. Key fronts included the Russian-French-Front (northwest Italy, Balkans, Middle East, and colonies), with the Russian and French fronts being the most significant. Initial Russian advances were halted at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. On the French front, the German army’s unexpected entry through Belgium caught the French off guard.
By 1915, trench warfare had become dominant. The development of new weapons (machine guns, poison gas, aircraft, submarines) led to the construction of extensive trench systems from the North Sea to Switzerland. Battles like the Battle of Ypres saw the widespread use of these new technologies.
1916 is known as the year of attrition, marked by economic and industrial strain. The Battle of the Somme and the Battle of Verdun were major battles on the Western Front. Verdun, a strategically important city, was fiercely contested.
1917 was a critical and decisive year. The Russian Revolution led to Russia’s withdrawal from the war, while the United States’ entry tipped the balance in favor of the Allied Powers.
1918 marked the end of the conflict. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ended Russia’s involvement, while President Wilson’s Fourteen Points outlined a vision for peace and the creation of the League of Nations. Germany’s internal revolutions and the Allied offensives led to Germany’s request for an armistice. The subsequent Paris Peace Conference determined the terms imposed on the defeated Central Powers.
3.2. The economic war.
Colonial exploitation played a crucial role, providing resources and troops. Trade restrictions hampered the Central Powers, leading to shortages and rationing. The war enriched some, particularly those involved in clandestine trade and the military industry. Neutral countries profited by selling goods to both sides. The importance of credit and international loans, particularly from the United States, also significantly impacted the war’s economic landscape.