World War I: Causes, Consequences, and Key Events
World War I: A Summary of Events
The Treaty of Versailles and its Conditions
Germany was forced to accept responsibility for the war, cede Alsace and Lorraine to France, and pay reparations for damages caused. Germany also lost other territories.
Territorial Changes in Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria
The Austro-Hungarian empire disintegrated, leading to the birth of Czechoslovakia, which integrated German and Hungarian minorities. Yugoslavia (now Serbia) and Italy gained minor territories, while Romania expanded into former Hungarian and Russian territories. Bulgaria ceded territory to Greece in the Aegean region.
Consequences for the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire dissolved and was replaced by a republic. Its Arab territories were divided between British and French mandates.
Europe’s Decline and the Rise of New Powers
World War I is often referred to as “the suicide of Europe” due to the continent’s decline, which contrasted with the rise of non-European powers like the U.S. and Japan.
Failure of Pacifism and the League of Nations
The immense desire for peace following the war did not materialize due to the weakness of the League of Nations. Its effectiveness was hampered by the U.S.’s isolationist stance, the exclusion of the USSR, and the delayed admission of defeated nations like Germany and Turkey.
Impact of the War on Artistic Movements
The war influenced artistic movements such as Dadaism, Surrealism, Expressionism, and Realism, leading to the exploration of absurdity, dreams, and critical vocabulary.
Key Terms and Definitions
- Autocracy: A government system where one person holds absolute power.
- Pogrom: Organized persecution of an ethnic or religious group.
- Assassination: Murder of a head of state or ruler.
- Casus Belli: An event or circumstance that justifies a declaration of war.
- Straits: Narrow waterways connecting the Black Sea, Sea of Marmara, and the Aegean Sea.
- Bolshevik: A faction of the Russian socialist movement that advocated for a well-organized revolutionary group to accelerate the formation of a communist society.
- Labour: Socialist parties in the UK and other Anglo-Saxon countries.
- Belle Époque: A period of peace and prosperity.
Russia at the Beginning of the 20th Century
Tsar Nicholas II ruled as an autocrat. The peasantry lived in poverty, while the middle class desired Western-style reforms. Rapid industrialization caused social imbalances and concerns abroad.
The 1905 Russian Revolution
Japan’s defeat of Russia in 1904 led to strikes and riots. The Bloody Sunday massacre of 1905 sparked the revolution. Though the revolt was suppressed, the Tsar granted a consultative assembly (the Duma), which failed to improve the situation.
The Boxer Rebellion in China
The Boxer Rebellion, an anti-foreign uprising against imperialist powers in China, was crushed with Western aid. The Manchu dynasty’s credibility was damaged, and support for a republic grew.
European Alliances in 1914
- Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
- Triple Entente: France, Russia, and the United Kingdom.
Outbreak of World War I
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, served as the casus belli for the war.
German War Plan
German strategists anticipated a short war. Their plan was to defeat France quickly before turning their attention to Russia.
Phases of the Conflict
The war progressed through several phases, including mobilization in 1914, the war of attrition in 1915, the failure of the German offensive in 1918, and the eventual Allied victory.
German Submarine Warfare
German submarine warfare disrupted Allied supply lines and targeted neutral ships, escalating the conflict.
Turning Points in 1917
- The Russian Revolution led to separate peace talks between Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary.
- The United States entered the war after Germany’s indiscriminate submarine attacks.
End of the War
By the autumn of 1918, Germany’s allies were weakening, and revolutionary councils were forming within German cities. Facing imminent defeat, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, a republic was proclaimed, and Germany requested an armistice on November 11, 1918.
The February Revolution of 1917
Poor supply lines, low troop morale, and the Tsar’s resistance to reforms led to the February Revolution in Russia.
The Bolshevik Party
The Bolsheviks distinguished themselves from other socialist parties by advocating for Soviet control and the establishment of a dictatorship.
Lenin’s Program
Lenin’s program involved making peace with Germany, which allowed him to return to Russia from exile in Switzerland.
October 1917
The Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd, arrested Kerensky’s government, and formed the Council of People’s Commissars.
The Russian Civil War
The Bolshevik government faced counter-revolutionary forces, eventually defeating them in 1921.
Bolshevik Consolidation of Power
The Bolsheviks consolidated power through Trotsky’s Red Army and repressive policies.
Wilson’s Fourteen Points
Wilson’s Fourteen Points advocated for freedom of navigation and commerce, self-determination, open diplomacy, and the creation of a League of Nations. France maintained a hardline stance during peace negotiations.
New States from the Former Russian Empire
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania emerged as independent states, while parts of Poland and Romania annexed former Russian territories.