World War I: Causes, Development, and Consequences

Posted on Nov 16, 2024 in History

The Origins of World War I

The Armed Peace (1890-1914)

Following German unification, Chancellor Bismarck’s policies propelled the nation to the forefront of international politics. This led to a system of alliances, primarily between Germany, Austria, and Russia, with Italy also joining the fold. This alliance system aimed to achieve two key objectives:

• Isolate France, as the loss of Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War fueled French desires for revenge.
• Maintain equilibrium in the Balkans, recognizing the potential for conflict stemming from Austrian and Russian interests in the region.

However, the death of Kaiser Wilhelm I and the subsequent ascension of the more aggressive and expansionist Wilhelm II in 1890 resulted in Bismarck’s dismissal. This marked the beginning of the Armed Peace (1890-1914), characterized by:

• The formation of opposing power blocs: Germany, Austria, and Italy formed the Triple Alliance, while France, Russia, and Great Britain established the Triple Entente. Russia’s withdrawal from its alliance with Germany stemmed from disagreements over Balkan issues.
• A pervasive atmosphere of fear that fueled a reciprocal arms race among European powers.

Armed Clashes Between Powers

Conflicts persisted between established colonial powers and emerging nations seeking colonies for raw materials and markets. Two notable examples include:

The Moroccan Crises (1905-1911): Both Germany and France vied for control of Morocco. The Algeciras Conference (1906) declared Morocco a French and Spanish protectorate. However, in 1911, Germany accused France of violating the Algeciras agreement and, in exchange for recognizing the French protectorate, secured the transfer of a portion of the Congo.

The Balkan Crises: The decline of the Ottoman Empire created opportunities for Austria and Russia to expand their influence. Russia supported Slavic states (Bulgaria and Serbia) to prevent them from falling under Austrian control, while Austria aimed to expand its reach to the Adriatic coast. This resulted in three major crises between 1908 and 1913.

The Crisis of Summer 1914

In June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, visited Sarajevo in Bosnia to assert Austrian authority. He was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist, providing Austria with a pretext to take action against Serbia.

On July 23, Austria issued an ultimatum to Serbia, threatening war if Serbia did not allow an investigation into the assassination. Serbia, backed by Russia, rejected the ultimatum, leading Austria to declare war on July 28.

Russia mobilized against Austria, prompting Germany to demand that Russia halt its mobilization. When Russia failed to comply, Germany declared war on both Russia and France, anticipating French support for Russia.

Germany’s invasion of Belgium, a neutral country, as part of its Schlieffen Plan, drew Great Britain into the conflict, as Britain had guaranteed Belgian neutrality. Britain declared war on Germany.

Italy, initially part of the Triple Alliance, chose not to support Germany and Austria, effectively breaking the alliance.

The Development of World War I (1914-1918)

Belligerent Countries and Stages of Conflict

The war escalated into a global conflict. The Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary) were supported by Turkey and Bulgaria. The Triple Entente (France, Russia, Great Britain) gained the support of Italy, Romania, Greece, and eventually the United States. Other countries from the Americas and Asia also participated.

The War of Movement (August 1914)

Germany’s Schlieffen Plan aimed for a swift victory over France before turning its attention to Russia. This involved a surprise attack through neutral Belgium. However, the German advance was halted at the Battle of the Marne (September 1914) near Paris.

Russia, responding to French pleas, launched a hasty offensive against Germany. Despite suffering a defeat at Tannenberg (September 1914), the Russians forced Germany to divert troops eastward, contributing to the Allied victory at the Marne.

The War of Positions (1914-1917)

The failure of Germany’s initial offensive led to a stalemate, with both sides digging trenches and establishing defensive positions. Trench warfare became the dominant form of combat, characterized by attrition and massive infantry assaults.

Germany’s attempt to break the stalemate at the Battle of Verdun (February 1916) and the British offensive at the Somme (July 1916) resulted in heavy casualties but failed to achieve a breakthrough.

With the main fronts stabilized, the Allies sought to gain an advantage by attacking secondary fronts:

• In the Mediterranean, the British attempted to isolate Turkey but failed at Gallipoli (1915).
• Germany’s African colonies were conquered by British and Japanese forces.
• In the Middle East, Allied forces, aided by Arab nationalists, occupied Ottoman territories in Palestine, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq.
• The British navy blockaded Germany, prompting Germany to resort to unrestricted submarine warfare.

The Crisis of 1917

Two major events altered the course of the war:

• The Russian Revolution: The Tsar was overthrown, and a communist government came to power. In December 1917, Russia signed an armistice with Germany, followed by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, formally withdrawing from the war and ceding vast territories to Germany.
• The United States’ Entry into the War: Initially neutral, the U.S. supplied the Allies with materials. Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare, which included the sinking of American ships, led the U.S. to declare war in April 1917. The U.S. provided crucial manpower and industrial support to the Allied cause.

The Offensive of 1918 and the End of the War

Russia’s withdrawal allowed Germany to launch a major offensive on the Western Front. However, the arrival of American troops helped to stem the German advance.

The Allies launched a counteroffensive (Second Battle of the Marne), and Germany’s weakened forces, exhausted by years of war and facing shortages of men and supplies, could not withstand the Allied onslaught. The Central Powers surrendered in November 1918, ending the war.

The Consequences of the Conflict and the Organization of Peace

Consequences

World War I had devastating consequences:

• Human Cost: Over 8 million soldiers were killed, and 9 million were wounded.
• Demographic Impact: The war created a surplus of women in marriageable age groups and led to a significant decline in birth rates.
• Economic Transformation: War economies emerged, with governments controlling production and trade, suspending free-market principles.
• Social Change: Women entered the workforce in large numbers.
• Propaganda: Governments used propaganda to maintain morale and demonize the enemy.
• Technological Advancements: New weapons, such as mortars, poison gas, tanks, and armored vehicles, were developed.

The Peace Treaties of Paris (1919-1920)

The Paris Peace Conference resulted in treaties with all defeated nations: the Treaty of Versailles (Germany), the Treaty of Saint-Germain (Austria), the Treaty of Trianon (Hungary), the Treaty of Sèvres (Turkey), and the Treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria).

The treaties aimed to achieve three main goals:

• Prevent the resurgence of Germany.
• Establish a balance of power among the victorious nations.
• Isolate Russia by creating a “cordon sanitaire” to prevent the spread of communism.

Territorial Changes

The German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires were dissolved and suffered significant territorial losses:

• Germany lost all its colonies, which were acquired by France and Great Britain. It also lost European territories: Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France, and parts of Prussia were ceded to Poland.
• The Austro-Hungarian Empire was divided into Austria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. It also lost territories to Yugoslavia, Poland, and Romania.
• The Ottoman Empire was reduced to the Republic of Turkey and lost control of various territories, including Syria (to France), Iraq and Palestine (to Great Britain), and several islands (to Greece and Italy).

To isolate Russia, neighboring states were strengthened:

• Poland gained territories from Russia, Austria, and Germany, including access to the sea through the Danzig Corridor, which became a Free City administered by the League of Nations.
• Romania acquired Transylvania from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

To stabilize the Balkans, a new state, Yugoslavia, was created, uniting Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia, Montenegro, and Macedonia.

Other Consequences of the War

The Treaty of Versailles held Germany and its allies solely responsible for the war and imposed heavy war reparations. Germany’s military was significantly reduced, and the Rhineland was demilitarized, creating a buffer zone along the French border.

The United States, which did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles due to disagreements with some of its provisions, adopted a policy of isolationism in the following decade and did not join the League of Nations.

The League of Nations, established in 1920 in Geneva, aimed to promote international cooperation and resolve disputes peacefully. Despite its efforts, the League failed to prevent the major conflicts of the 1930s but served as a precursor to the United Nations.